Alexander quiroga C

Top 5 World’s Most Successful Cars Ever
Success in car industry is measured only through results of sale, although in the last decade this criterion started to lose value as well. Increased competition and lowered profitability resulted in continuous losses per sold car recorded by the leading car makers. It was caused by multiple reasons – from expensive labor and costs of restructuring to manufacturing deficiencies caused by trying to present the whole range of new cars as soon as possible, which inevitably led to many withdrawals and expensive corrections of the cars. Still, some cars gained the buyers’ trust all around the world. Different generations of cars such as Toyota Corolla, Volkswagen Golf or Honda Civic became more and more popular and sold in higher quantities.
5. Ford Model T

With 16,500,000 sold cars, T model is the second best selling car in the world, but also much more than that. This is the first car manufactured by the so called assembly line manufacturing, which simplified the car making, and more importantly, made it cheaper and started more massive production. The famous line of the founder Henry Ford refers to T model: “Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black” since, due to express production, no other color could dry as fast as black.

Henry Ford: ‘Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black.'

4. Volkswagen Beetle

Volkswagen Beetle – By far the best selling car in the world with the same body for almost 60 years

Volkswagen’s Beetle is the best selling car in history. Legend has it that Adolf Hitler himself drew its legendary shape on a paper towel. During almost 60 years, the incredible 21,529,464 Beetles were produced, which is particularly significant when taking into account the fact that during 60 years the Beetle had the same car body, with some mechanical changes. The original form of the Beetle was produced until 2003, when the last car left the Volkswagen factory in Mexico.

3. Volkswagen Golf


Although ultra popular in Europe, Volkswagen’s Golf is lower ranked on the most important market, the North American one

Third ranked is second of two Volkswagens - Golf, which gained in popularity on a global scale through five generations, and to the present more than 24 million cars have been sold. The latest Volkswagen generation will once more try to win the American market, and its advantage is the fact that the American buyers are more and more oriented towards buying more cost-effective cars. Golf has been produced since 1974, and its sports GTI version recently celebrated its 30th birthday.


2. Ford - F series
Believe it or not, every year the F Ford model is sold more than any other car


It is almost unbelievable that the second ranked in total sale is a pick-up vehicle. Even more impressive information is that this vehicle reached such a score only on North American territory. However, the most surprising is the fact that Ford’s F series is at present the best selling car in the world. Every year Ford sells almost a million cars, that is almost one vehicle every 30 seconds. So far, 25 million vehicles of the F series were sold.

1. Toyota Corolla
Toyota Corolla is the best-selling nameplate in automotive history

The making of Corolla started in 1966 when Japanese manufacturer decided to present a small compact car which integrates quality, style and cost-effectiveness of more prestigious models. During 40 years Corolla had as many as nine generations, and in 1997 it was the best selling car of all time. To the present day more than 35 million vehicles were sold and we can expect it to stay on the top in the future.

the most expensive car in the world




1. Bugatti Veyron 16.4:

This is the most expensive, powerful and fastest street legal car available in the market today. It comes with a price tag of $1,70,00,000. It is the fastest accelerating car and reaches 0-60 in 2.6 seconds. It is one of the fastest cars with a top speed of 253mph or 407 km/h. It is a beautiful Volkswagen package. It supports a W16 engine. It has 16 cylinders which makes it very powerful with a huge horsepower of 1001bhp.

2. Ferrari Enzo:

It is the second most expensive car in the world with a price tag of $ 1,000,000.It is named after the name of founder of Ferrari, Enzo Ferrari. It is also known as Ferrari F-60.It has a 12 cylinder engine with a top speed of 186mph.It comes with a 6 speed semi automatic transmission. Its powerful engine generates a huge horsepower of 660 bhp @ 7800rpm.It’s whole body is made up of carbon fiber which makes it very strong and reliable at very high speed.

Price: $ 1,000,000

3. Pagani Zonda C12F:
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Pagani Zonda C12 F Roadster
Origin: Italy
Price: $683,592
Top Speed: 214.4 mph
0-60: 3.5 seconds

When Pagani took the wraps off this convertible version of its flagship supercar at this year's Geneva Auto Show, it caused a noticeable stir. Built alongside the regular production version, the Zonda F is Pagani's tribute to five-time world champion Juan Manuel Fangio. While the F shares the same basic shape with all Zondas, it has new aerodynamic devices, an upgraded drive train, larger wheels, and ceramic brakes.
third among the most expensive cars in the world with a price tag of $ 7, 41,000.It made it’s debut at Geneva auto show in 2005.It uses a very powerful 7.3 liter V12 engine which generates a horsepower of 594 bhp.It has a superb acceleration and reaches 0-60mph in just 3.2 sec.It has a top speed of 225mph.

Price: $ 7, 41,000

Lamborghini Murcielago


Origin: Italy
Price: $279,900
Top Speed: 205 mph
0-60: 3.8 seconds

When Audi bought the venerable Italian Lamborghini, many fans worried that German exactness would creep into the notoriously powerful and sometimes reckless Lambo ethos. But the raging bull hasn't been transformed into an ambling Bavarian cow. Instead, this may be Lamborghini's most exciting model in years and certainly one of the fastest road-ready vehicles.

Read the story

Mercedes-Benz SLR McLare

(Cont.)
Origin: Germany
Price: $455,000
Top Speed: 207.5 mph
0-60: 3.6 seconds

Rumors surfaced last week in the German auto press that Mercedes was planning a slew of updates to the sleek supercar as soon as September, 2006. The new model will get an additional 25 horses, bringing the total to 650, a redesigned interior cabin, 19-inch wheels, and new carbon fiber breaks. The catch? The price is expected to increase dramatically as well.



4. Koenigsegg CCX:

It comes fourth in the list of most expensive cars in the world. You can make it yours by spending a big amount of nearly $600,910.CCX is short form for Competition Coupe X.It is powered by a 32-valve V8 engine. This powerful machine generates a horse power of 806bhp with 687 lb-ft of torque.

Price: $600,910

5. Porsche Carrera GT:

It comes fifth in the list of most expensive cars. It comes with a price range of $484,000.It is comes with a 5.7 liter V10 engine which produces a horsepower of 612 bhp.It reaches 0-100 km/h in 6.8 seconds and has a maximum speed of 330kmph.It is very famous among youngsters for it’s aggressive looks.

Price: $484,000

Spyker C12 La Turbie

Origin: Holland
Price: $355,000
Top Speed: 201 mph
0-60: 3.9 seconds

The twinkle in a Dutch nobleman's eye, Spyker was a famed racing brand in the early 20th century. Like many of Europe's small auto makers, it succumbed to the Depression. The company lay dormant from the 1930s to 1999, when it was reborn as a design-driven supercar company.


Ferrari 575M Maranello

Origin: Italy
Price: $285,000
Top Speed: 202 mph
0-60: 4.1 seconds

Born at the same time as Ferrari's F1 competitor, the Maranello wears its racing pedigree on its sleeve. Long, balanced lines give the body a sober look that (almost) belies its 200+-mile-per-hour performance.


Aston Martin Vanquish S V12

Origin: England
Price: $255,000
Top Speed: 201 mph
0-60: 4.7 seconds

This model, the fastest ever built by Aston Martin, made its debut two years ago in Paris to much fanfare. The "S" is, in fact, a souped-up version of the standard Vanquish. So why pay thousands in premium fees? A lot of minor adjustments add up, taking the car into supercar territory. Aston tweaks include a lowered ride height, quickened steering, and a firmer suspension.


The Fastest European Cars
By Matt Vella

Racing experts and die-hard fans dispute the proper definition of a supercar. Some place more stock in proven top speed, while others look to technical figures including power-to-weight ratio.

Nevertheless, all the vehicles featured here are capable of topping 200 miles per hour. Prices range from a mere $250,000 to well over $1 million. And scarcity is the mark of distinction common to them all. Production runs often number in the mere hundreds.

Check out the world's fastest European autos.

Bugatti Veyron 16.4


Origin: Germany
Price: $1,190,000
Top Speed: 252 mph
0-60: 2.5 seconds

Despite its futuristic looks, the Bugatti is perfectly real. Presented for the first time as a concept six years ago, the Veyron was quickly dismissed as an impossible feat to accomplish. But Volkswagen has indeed managed to begin producing the awe-inspiring vehicles, with the first models shipping this spring.


Koenigsegg CCX

Origin: Sweden
Price: $610,910
Top Speed: 245 mph
0-60: 3.2 seconds

Koenigsegg wowed the world last year when it nabbed the Guinness World Record for the fastest production car, ever. That record will soon be officially challenged by newcomer Bugatti which has recorded 0-to-60 speeds of an astonishing 2.5 seconds.

The 12 brain nerves, coming from the

Brain Training Activities

Brain Reflection Test

This is a simple but effective exercise to test the reflection of your brain, the faster the better, try to get a score of 0.20 second on the first reflection test, also there is a second Reflex Test, try to get 58 points in that one, If you do achieve these two goals then you’re very fast, and we should congratulate you!



Brain Creativity

Being creative is a good thing; in fact it’s essential if we want to make our life better. Stimulating areas of your brain is a healthy process, in this page we will try to wake up (if dormant) the brain creativity potential, this game has 25 levels, let’s see how far you could go.



Memory Test

Here you will be able to test your memory, testing it will help you improve it, this game stimulates many areas in your brain responsible for storing and retrieving information, you will be enhancing your memory while still having fun. You can also check this memory game which will check your ability of remembering faces and images … it’s a classic game but effective.



Brain Stretching

This is one way to stretch your brain, the objective is moving a number of disks from one pole/ peg to an other in a cetrain way. You will have to make an effort to arrange the disks the right way, and that in itself is a good exercise that can stretch your brain when playing.



IQ Booster

There are three games about chess that can possibly help you improve your intelligence., you can play chess which is simply the best strategy game, also this second Strategy Game called 8 Queens, and finally another Brain Game called (Chess Knight).


These are very good workouts, chess can help you gain the ability of good thinking and making creative strategies, if you don’t know how to play chess, then either check for the rules online before playing, or just jump to the next game.

This is a very good chess game that can play the role of an IQ booster, it is a good workout for the brain. Chess can help you gain the ability of good thinking and make creative strategies, if you don’t know how to play chess, then either check for the rules online before playing, or just jump to the next game. Chess is really a good way to help you better manage your life, because it teaches you how to think of the best strategies in the game, increase your spatial intelligence, enables your brain to think far, and ultimately boost your IQ.

As Intelligence is considered one of the most important factors to success, it’s extremely important to try games which can put it into the test, such as chess.

And since many people associate intelligence with a high I.Q level then it’s worth it to give it a try.



Playing Chess Instructions:

To start playing this IQ booster - chess choose the color of the CPU (your computer), if you choose “CPU White” that would mean that your pieces would be black, and vice versa. Then you can start moving your first piece in the chess board by clicking on the piece first, then clicking on the place where you want to move it. Go ahead and boost your IQ!

tabla de ajedres
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Spatial intelligence especially the ability to perceive possibilities for movement is clearly crucial to chess thinking, as is the capacity to build up a system of knowledge and experience. This system must be stored (memory) and well managed (rules), analogies and operating principles must be constantly abstracted, adapted and improved perhaps not always on a conscious level. Chess thinking often involves a complex, hierarchical structure of problems and sub-problems, and the capacity for retaining such complex structures of data not getting confused, and for keeping objectives clear and well organised, all correlate with having a high IQ.

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IQ Range:



The following is how the world ranks as a whole on IQ tests:

140 or higher: means that you’re a genius (less than 2% of the world population).

120 to 139: means you’re far above average (approximately 10% of the population).

110 to 119: means you’re above average (approximately 15% of the population).

95 to 109: means you’re average (approximately 50% of the population).

80 to 94: means you’re below average (approximately 20% of the population).

Less than 80: honestly it means you’re far below average (approximately 3% of the population), don’t panic if you're in this category, a recent study showed that people can increase their IQ level to more than 35%, which means that if your IQ is between 80 to 94 (below average), it can change to 110 to 119 (above average) just with training and methods that are considered IQ boosters.

You might be the smartest person in the world and you may not even know it, because most of people don’t know their actual IQ.


Sudoku – Brain Stimulation

In this page you can either play Sudoku, or solve an already existing Sudoku puzzle that you have, a very nice strategy game and one of the fastest growing games of the 21 century, simple but is considered to be a good brain stimulation and training.



Spatial Intelligence

This is about Rubik’s Cube puzzle, a very challenging game, which can stimulate many parts of your brain that you usually don’t stimulate, including visual memory and spatial intelligence.



Math Problems:

It’s nice to be an athlete, but certainly it’s super nice to be a Mathlete. Well this is your chance. This is not a complicated Math Game, in fact it’s a very easy test, however the point is not just to solve the questions provided, but to solve as many questions as possible in a short time, a very good score would be 21 points in this exercise.



Brain Concentration

This brain concentration game is a little bit hard, but that’s the point, the harder the game the more stimulation you get, this can help you gain the ability to concentrate better. The game depends on the level you choose, you can start with the lowest level and as you learn the rules of the game you can pick higher levels in this concentration game.



Brain Exercise

This brain exercise is about being able to arrange the numbers in the right order in a very short time, this game depends on the level you choose, it’s a classic simple game, but a very effective exercise. Have fun and good luck!

Brain Training Activities

Brain Reflection Test

This is a simple but effective exercise to test the reflection of your brain, the faster the better, try to get a score of 0.20 second on the first reflection test, also there is a second Reflex Test, try to get 58 points in that one, If you do achieve these two goals then you’re very fast, and we should congratulate you!



Brain Creativity

Being creative is a good thing; in fact it’s essential if we want to make our life better. Stimulating areas of your brain is a healthy process, in this page we will try to wake up (if dormant) the brain creativity potential, this game has 25 levels, let’s see how far you could go.



Memory Test

Here you will be able to test your memory, testing it will help you improve it, this game stimulates many areas in your brain responsible for storing and retrieving information, you will be enhancing your memory while still having fun. You can also check this memory game which will check your ability of remembering faces and images … it’s a classic game but effective.



Brain Stretching

This is one way to stretch your brain, the objective is moving a number of disks from one pole/ peg to an other in a cetrain way. You will have to make an effort to arrange the disks the right way, and that in itself is a good exercise that can stretch your brain when playing.



IQ Booster

There are three games about chess that can possibly help you improve your intelligence., you can play chess which is simply the best strategy game, also this second Strategy Game called 8 Queens, and finally another Brain Game called (Chess Knight).


These are very good workouts, chess can help you gain the ability of good thinking and making creative strategies, if you don’t know how to play chess, then either check for the rules online before playing, or just jump to the next game.



Sudoku – Brain Stimulation

In this page you can either play Sudoku, or solve an already existing Sudoku puzzle that you have, a very nice strategy game and one of the fastest growing games of the 21 century, simple but is considered to be a good brain stimulation and training.



Spatial Intelligence

This is about Rubik’s Cube puzzle, a very challenging game, which can stimulate many parts of your brain that you usually don’t stimulate, including visual memory and spatial intelligence.



Math Problems:

It’s nice to be an athlete, but certainly it’s super nice to be a Mathlete. Well this is your chance. This is not a complicated Math Game, in fact it’s a very easy test, however the point is not just to solve the questions provided, but to solve as many questions as possible in a short time, a very good score would be 21 points in this exercise.



Brain Concentration

This brain concentration game is a little bit hard, but that’s the point, the harder the game the more stimulation you get, this can help you gain the ability to concentrate better. The game depends on the level you choose, you can start with the lowest level and as you learn the rules of the game you can pick higher levels in this concentration game.



Brain Exercise

This brain exercise is about being able to arrange the numbers in the right order in a very short time, this game depends on the level you choose, it’s a classic simple game, but a very effective exercise. Have fun and good luck!



Cognitive Training

This training is a lot of fun and simple but can help your cognitive and prediction sense along with your reflection skills, a good player would be someone who predicts well where the exact spot that the ball would hit and therefore have a fast reaction to be in the right spot, a good score is 2 points different than your opponent (which is the computer in this case). Cognitive training game cannot be played with a touchpad, because your reaction is way slower than a mouse when using a touchpad. So if you have a laptop you might get a mouse to play this game.



Finally you can read about Intelligence and read about the IQ or take an IQ Test if you want, please note that the tests are just for brain training purposes and don’t determine your actual level. Some games can be addictive so play responsibly.



Please enjoy the activities that are offered free of charge. Welcome to your Brain Gym and have a good workout!!!!

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Cognitive Training

This training is a lot of fun and simple but can help your cognitive and prediction sense along with your reflection skills, a good player would be someone who predicts well where the exact spot that the ball would hit and therefore have a fast reaction to be in the right spot, a good score is 2 points different than your opponent (which is the computer in this case). Cognitive training game cannot be played with a touchpad, because your reaction is way slower than a mouse when using a touchpad. So if you have a laptop you might get a mouse to play this game.



Finally you can read about Intelligence and read about the IQ or take an IQ Test if you want, please note that the tests are just for brain training purposes and don’t determine your actual level. Some games can be addictive so play responsibly.



Please enjoy the activities that are offered free of charge. Welcome to your Brain Gym and have a good workout!!!!

Intelligence
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is defined as general cognitive problem-solving skills. A mental ability involved in reasoning, perceiving relationships and analogies, calculating, learning quickly… etc. Earlier it was believed that there was one underlying general factor at the intelligence base (the g-factor), but later psychologists maintained that it is more complicated and could not be determined by such a simplistic method.

Some psychologists have divided intelligence into subcategories. For example Howard Gardner maintained that it is comprised of seven components: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Other definitions are: "Intelligence is what you do when you don't know what to do." "Intelligence is a hypothetical idea which we have defined as being reflected by certain types of behavior."



Is Intelligence Inherited?
It is generally accepted that intelligence is inherited but can also be related to the environment. While studies showed that heredity is an important factor in determining intelligence; it was also suggested that environment is a critical factor in determining the extent of its expression.

An investigation done recently revealed that 70 percent of the differences in the twins' I.Q. scores were attributable to inherited traits. Previous studies had suggested that about 50 percent of the differences in scores were inherited.

Studies showed that the grey matter volume is strongly determined by genes, and reflected cognitive performance. It was also suggested that there is a strong genetic influence on IQ, verbal and spatial abilities, So in short our genes determine the quality of our intelligence, our ability to integrate and process information. The level of our intelligence determines how well we cope with changes in our environment.

It is believed that race and culture have their share in intelligence as well, but so far there is no confirmed conclusion that intelligence varies from race to race.

Environmental factors can play a role as well, but in fact they are capable of slowing down our mental processes more than enhancing it. There is no evidence to indicate that our environment can increase intelligence to a relatively high level. It is also inherently easier to degrade brain tissue than to create more complex brain tissue. Enhancements in brain structure require long periods of evolutionary selection, in addition to the availability of extraneous sources of energy. While brain degradation can happen in a relatively shorter time.




Intelligence Tests
A number of psychologists have argued that intelligence can be quantified, primarily through testing. In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon devised a system for testing intelligence, with scoring based on average mental levels for various age groups. However the German psychologist L. Wilhelm Stern was the first to coin the term intelligence quotient (IQ), a figure derived from the ratio of mental age to chronological age. Although Stern's method for determining IQ is no longer in common use, the term IQ is still used today to describe the results in several different tests. Today, an average IQ score is considered to be 100, with deviations based on this figure.

Intelligence tests do not measure creativity, character, personality, or other important differences among individuals, nor are they intended to.

While there are different types of intelligence tests, they all measure the same intelligence. Some use words or numbers and require specific cultural knowledge (like vocabulary). Others do not, and instead use shapes or designs and require knowledge of only simple, universal concepts.

Most people cluster around the average (IQ 100). Few are either very bright or very dull: About 3% of Americans score above IQ 130.

Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against any race, for example in America, IQ scores predict equally and accurately for all Americans (African Americans, Caucasians, Hispanics …), regardless of race and social class. Individuals who do not understand English well can be given either a nonverbal test or one in their native language.

The main criticism of intelligence testing is that it is difficult to insure that test items are equally meaningful or difficult for members of different sociocultural groups. Testing is often considered validated in part, however, by the finding that the quantity measured by the tests can be closely correlated in American society with career and academic achievement.
What's an IQ? (Intelligence Quotient)
IQ is a number meant to measure people cognitive abilities (intelligence) in relation to their age group. An I.Q between 90 and 110 is considered average; over 120, superior.

Roughly 68% of the population has an IQ between 85 and 115. The average range between 70 and 130, and represents about 95% of the population. A score below 70 may indicate problems in understanding the iQ questions or soem type or retardation, and a score above 130 may indicate intellectual giftedness. 1% of the population has an IQ of 136 or higher. However, an individual scoring 100 within one population can score above or below that value within another population, for example, the Japanese are supposed to have the highest average IQ in the world (115), but this 115 can only be an average of 100 within their own population.



What is the highest IQ?
The highest IQ was 228, according to Guinness Book of Records, this score belongs to the 'smartest' person in the world Marilyn vos Savant who scored it when she was 10 year old. This would, according to recent research, correspond to about IQ 185 at adult age. That score is, at least, surpassed by the chess player and champion Bobby Fisher which was 187, and Kim Ung-Yong (S. Korea) with a score over 200.



Who is the smartest person?
I don't think anyone has an accurate answer to that question; however some psychologists believe that William James Sidis reached the maximum capacity possible for a human. In the Buzan's Book of Mental World Records, the highest IQ score ever attained is assigned to the history's greatest genius Leonardo Da Vinci. The estimate is a nearly unbelievable adult IQ of 220.

How did the IQ start?
It all started with the Binet scale with one single goal in mind, to serve as a guide to identify children in the school who need special education to minimize their inferior level. Binet also reported that it's not designed to measure 'intelligence'. Later after many modifications on the original method of Binet such as Simon-Binet, or Stanford-Binet, Intelligence tests were getting more popular among the population as well as in government departments. In 1989 the American Academy for the Advancement of Science listed the IQ test among the twenty most significant scientific discoveries of the twentieth century along with nuclear fission, DNA, and flight.



Does the IQ really measure intelligence?
Well, to answer that we first need to answer one question, what is intelligence? You cannot measure something that you can hardly define. The problem is that the term intelligence has never been defined adequately and therefore nobody knows what an IQ test is supposed to measure. In spite of all this, today the future of thousands of children/ employees is determined by the results of this test, simply because it has its good share of accuracy.


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Can we Increase our Intelligence?
There are certainly ways to increase one’s intelligence, also called intelligence amplification/ enhancing, by practicing many proven cognitive tools such as mnemonics, problem-solving heuristics, creativity techniques and decision-making tools. An increase in the intelligence level can only result in a better life, health, and standard of living. Below you will find some simple intelligence boosters:

Deep thinking: in life it’s not enough to just react to events, and situations, rather we should have a conscious objective and select our actions to get nearer our objective. Also it’s important to think about consequences of our actions, to minimize the possibilities of errors and regret. Deep thinking would normally help you live better, and reach your goals.

Good reasoning: it is the key to success, especially if performed consciously and in the proper order: 1) have an objective, 2) make a general sensing about it, 3) determine your decision based on your sensing, 4) make alternate plans (along the main objective), 5) select the best response/ plan. 5) start by carrying out your plan, 6) observe results, 7) store experiences (for future reference).

Learning from past experience: it is believed that many inventions were actually re-inventions; for example Egyptians 2000-4000 years ago were using some unique techniques to build their temples, buildings… but since the early Egyptians were not good at keeping records of what they were doing, many of their inventions/ techniques were lost, and they had to be reinvented many centuries after them, which means that we had to start from point zero again because we didn’t keep records of our discoveries. You can apply that to your own life, learning from the past experience either bad or good is very beneficial, and can save you a lot of time and effort. A good way to do that is journal writing which is a useful way to develop self understanding, and to analyze events, in addition to provide a record of how we change over time.

Practice: you cannot learn swimming from a book, the same thing should be taken into consideration when dealing with “thinking”; you cannot learn to think without practicing. And as mentioned earlier, a good way to start is with cognitive tools such as brain exercises: mnemonics, problem-solving heuristics, creativity techniques, brainstorming, puzzles, brain teasing games… etc.



Intelligence Pills? Smart Drugs?
It would sure be nice if we just take a smart pill and get smarter, instead of going through all those brain teasers and problem-solving training.

In fact, scientists are indeed studying substances that may improve mental abilities. These substances are called "cognitive enhancers" or "smart drugs".

The supposed effects of these intelligence drugs can be several things, for example, it can improve memory, learning, attention, concentration, problem solving, reasoning, social skills, decision making and planning.

In most cases, smart drugs have been used to treat people with neurological or mental disorders, but there is a growing number of healthy, "normal" people who use these substances in hopes of getting smarter. However it’s arguable if the cognitive enhancers have some effects if any. Results from different laboratories show mixed results; some labs show positive effects on memory and learning; other labs show no effects.

The intelligence pills are supposed to work by increasing brain metabolism, increasing cerebral circulation, or protection of the brain from physical and chemical damage, and as a consequence they result in increased mental energy, increased alertness, decreased depression, improved memory, and improved learning ability.

There are many names in the market of these smart pills, and the number is growing bigger day after day. Many of them are made of herbal as well as chemical substances. Below is a list of some intelligence enhancers in their natural state:



Ginko Biloba extracts: apparently have vasodilatory effects, and have in some studies shown it could treat some symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. They also appear to have some effects on short term memory. But no study to confirm these results yet.

Choline: A natural amine, often classed in the vitamin B complex. There is evidence that drugs that stimulate the cholinergic systems improve certain memory tasks, and there is much speculation that adding extra choline to the diet would lead to better general memory performance.

Caffeine: caffeine acts as a mild stimulant to the nervous system, blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine and resulting in a feeling of well-being and alertness. It increases the heart rate, blood pressure. Although it’s not smart to take it as a smart drug, it is however probably relevant anyway, simple, relatively safe if not taken excessively. May be one cup or less a day is considered to be within the safe range.

Glucose: has been shown to improve memory when given in certain dosages in association with a learning task; how to exploit this to improve cognition in general is a more complex problem, because it can have negative effects as well.

Definitions related to Intelligence:


Gifted : used to describe individuals having great natural ability or talent, usually the equivalent of “intelligent”, this term is used often with children ”a gifted child”, also other possible equivalent words are “smart”, “nerd”, “brainy”, “genius”…etc.



Giftedness : is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average. The fact of having a mind ahead of the physical growth, and could be simply the equivalent of “intelligence”.



Creativity: mental process of generating new ideas or concepts, or new associations between existing ideas or concepts.

Superhuman:



Super-brain : also called mega-brain is used as a term to refer to machines or individuals who can perform/ process complicated tasks in a relatively faster speed.



High Intelligence Society : usually refers to a community where people with higher I.Q/ geniuses meet and exchange their ideas for the benefit of humanity, and to encourage the uses of intelligence. Usually a certain I.Q score should be obtained to join one of those societies.

The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the initial conditions and subsequent development of the universe that is supported by the most comprehensive and accurate explanations from current scientific evidence and observation.[1][2] As used by cosmologists, the term Big Bang generally refers to the idea that the universe has expanded from a primordial hot and dense initial condition at some finite time in the past, and continues to expand to this day.

Georges Lemaître proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, although he called it his "hypothesis of the primeval atom". The framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying assumptions (such as homogeneity and isotropy of space). The governing equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann. After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts, as suggested by Lemaître in 1927, this observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity.[3] If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, everything must have been closer together in the past. This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures,[4][5][6] and large particle accelerators have been built to experiment on and test such conditions, resulting in significant confirmation of the theory, but these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. Without any evidence associated with the earliest instant of the expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the universe since that instant. The observed abundances of the light elements throughout the cosmos closely match the calculated predictions for the formation of these elements from nuclear processes in the rapidly expanding and cooling first minutes of the universe, as logically and quantitatively detailed according to Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term Big Bang during a 1949 radio broadcast. It is popularly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners.[7][8] Hoyle later helped considerably in the effort to understand stellar nucleosynthesis, the nuclear pathway for building certain heavier elements from lighter ones. After the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum (i.e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength) sketched out a blackbody curve, most scientists were fairly convinced by the evidence that some Big Bang scenario must have occurred.

PLANETE
which should not be
For over ten years ago found the first planets outside our own solar system. To the astronomer's surprise planets revolved not around a normal star. Instead low otippat whole planets in orbit around a lethal pulsar. These hard-torn planets have since remained something of a mystery. Then their star dukade over and became a pulsar, the fact should have taken all their planets with them in the grave. But now scientists believe that they finally found a solution to the mystery of the planets that should not exist.


In the early 1990s we did not to any other planets than our own solar system planets. But 1991 would be a historic year. Then went the concept exoplaneter namely from being science-fiction into scientific fact.
During a reconnaissance for new pulsars, the Polish astronomer Aleksander Wolszczan namely found something he had not expected, the pulse is trilskna PSR 1257 +12.
Pulse is named after the fact that the emitting regular radio pulses. These volatile but recurrent signals sent out by the usually very short and extremely regular intervals. Pulse The striking regularity can be compared with a clock ticking, strenuous, and the fact is that the precision is quite comparable with the best atomic clocks.
However, this was not the case with the pulse is PSR 1257 +12. Small deviations in the time interval between pulses immediately aroused suspicions. It was not long before Wolszczan found that the pulse's quirky IRREGULARITY due to the two planets circle around itself.
To begin with, the many astronomers no more than skeptical about the discovery. It was, after all, a very unexpected place to find the planets. Moreover, British astronomers recently expired with the news that they have found a planet around a pulsar, a claim that they soon had to withdraw when their estimates turned out to be incorrect.
In 1994, it was however confirmed that there was not a mistake this time. The planets around PSR 1257 +12, which are both similar to Earth in size, was eminently fair. Moreover Wolszczan discovered another planet, inside the first two, which was not much bigger than Earth's moon.
Later, it has also found indications that the system has an asteroid belt. This asteroid belt would be outside the three inner planets, about the same location as the asteroid belt in our solar system.
On the whole, One could say that the planet system around pulse is PSR 1257 +12 is really pretty much like our own solar system. But with a crucial difference - instead of to revolve around a life-giving sun, so circuits planets around a pulsar, a dead star that does not spread other than the death around him.

Med rymdteleskopet Spitzers hjälp har amerikanska astronomer kunnat identifiera en stoftskiva kring pulsaren 4U 0142+61. Stoftskivan liknar de stoftskivor kring nykläckta stjärnor där planeter normalt sett föds. Detta är första gången som man kunnat hitta tecken på planetformation kring en död stjärna. Kanske har processen till och med redan startat i och med att mindre asteroider börjat ta form i stoftskivan. Hur som helst ger upptäckten oss lösningen på en över tio år gammal fråga: Hur kan det finnas planeter kring en pulsar? Bild: Nasa/JPL-Caltech


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Efter över två och ett halvt år i omloppsbana kring solen har det infraröda Spitzer-teleskopet hunnit leverera ett stort antal viktiga upptäckter. Bland annat har teleskopet kunnat­ lära oss en hel del om hur det går till när planeter­ föds ur stoftet kring unga stjärnor. Den senaste upptäckten i raden pekar nu på att liknande fenomen kan förekomma även kring avlidna stjärnor. Bild: Nasa/JPL-Caltech

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Denna sammansatta bild, skapad med hjälp av data från Hubble-teleskopet, Spitzer-teleskopet och Chandra X-ray Observatory, visar efterdyningarna av en supernova. Supernovan i fråga inträffade i stjärnbilden Cassiopeja, 10 000 ljusår bort, och spektaklet kunde beskådas från jorden för inte mer än 320 år sedan. Detta betyder att stjärnan med astronomiska mått mätt exploderade ganska nyligen, vilket gör att kvarlevorna ännu inte hunnit svalna. De heta rester som kastades ut vid explosionen lyser därför fortfarande klart. I centrum av de färgstarka spillrorna, synlig endast som en liten turkosaktig prick, ligger den neutronstjärna som lämnats kvar efter den ursprungliga stjärnans död. Bild: Nasa/JPL-Caltech/STScI/CXC/SAO


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Från utomjordingar till stupade stjärnor
Den första pulsaren upptäcktes år 1967 av de brittiska astronomerna Joce­lyn Bell Burnell och Antony Hewish. Eftersom de radiopulser man tog emot från det nya objektet var så extremt regelbundna, så tvivlade man till att börja med på att pulserna uppkommit på naturlig väg. Således drog man slutsatsen att det skulle kunna röra sig om en utomjordisk civilisation.
Nu vet vi emellertid att pulsarer i själva verket är allt annat än levande. En pulsar är nämligen kvarlevorna av en död stjärna, ett kadaver som lämnats kvar efter en våldsam supernovaexplosion.
Då en större stjärna når slutet av sin livscykel går den inte ur tiden i tysthet­. Om en stjärna är tillräckligt stor slutar­ den nämligen sina dagar med en gigantisk­ supernovaexplosion.
Det lilla som blir kvar av stjärnan efter­ explosionen kollapsar sedan under sin egen gravitation. I de mest extrema fallen bildas då ett svart hål. Om kollapsen inte är fullt så total, bildas istället en neutronstjärna, som kan sägas vara steget under ett svart hål.
En neutronstjärnas gravitation är så stark att inte ens atomer pallar att stå emot trycket. I vanliga fall består en atom mestadels av tomrum. Den har en kärna av positivt laddade protoner och neutrala neutroner, omgiven av negativa elektroner. Men mellan atomkärnan och elektronerna är det tomt. I en neutronstjärna har emellertid allt tomrum eliminerats. Atomerna har rasat samman, och alla protoner och elektroner har slagits ihop till neutroner. Allt som återstår är i princip en enda stor atomkärna, en boll av tätt packade neutroner, därför kallas den också neutronstjärna.


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Kosmiska fyrtorn
Neutronstjärnornas extremt kompakta sammansättning gör att de inte är mer än 10 till 20 kilometer stora, trots att deras massa är större än solens. Om man kunde skopa upp en tesked material ur en neutronstjärna, så skulle detta väga omkring två miljarder ton.
Den drastiska storleksminskningen gör också att neutronstjärnor roterar med oerhörd hastighet kring sin egen axel. Principen är densamma som när konståkare på isen drar in armarna till kroppen för att snurra fortare då de gör en piruett. Slutresultatet blir att den långsamma rotation som stjärnan hade då den levde, förvandlas till en rotation på flera hundra varv per sekund.
Neutronstjärnor har även våldsamt kraftiga magnetfält. Från dessa magnetfälts båda poler strömmar stora mängder strålning ut i rymden. Strålningen, som bland annat kan bestå av radiostrålning, bildar två koner som skjuter ut åt varsitt håll. Då neutronstjärnan roterar sveper dessa strålningskoner fram över himlen, ungefär som ljuskäglorna från ett fyrtorn.
Om en neutronstjärna är orienterad så att strålningskonerna under sin vilda färd genom rymden råkar passera jorden, så tar vi emot en radiosignal varje gång strålningen från neutronstjärnan träffar oss. Detta är vad vi brukar kalla en pulsar.
Eftersom mellanrummet mellan signalerna är direkt kopplat till neutronstjärnans rotationshastighet, kommer pulserna både tätt och väldigt regelbundet. Åtminstone så länge det inte finns några planeter som kan rubba den perfekta timingen.


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Ur askan i elden
Än så länge har det inte bildats några planeter kring den pulsar som Chakrabarty och hans kollegor studerat, men däremot har mindre asteroider kanske redan börjat framträda runtom i stoftskivan. Dessa asteroider är i så fall början på något helt nytt.
Med tiden kommer troligtvis en ny generation planeter att ta form kring röntgenpulsaren 4U 0142+61. Ett nytt, mer exotiskt planetsystem, liknande det som upptäcktes av Wolszczan kring pulsaren PSR 1257+12, kommer­ att dyka upp i det krossade planet­systemets ställe.
Planeter av det här slaget kallas ibland­ för Fenix-planeter, eftersom de precis som mytologins Fågel Fenix reser sig på nytt ur askan.
Men de pånyttfödda planeterna får ett allt annat än angenämt mottagande. Istället för att bada i en stjärnas ljus och värme, kommer de ständigt att bombarderas av intensiv och dödlig strålning från pulsaren.
Även om de pulsarplaneter vi känner till är stenplaneter av jämförbar storlek med jorden, så är liv i vanlig mening därför helt otänkbart på dessa planeter. Strålningen gör dem oundvikligen till fullkomligt sterila himlakroppar.
Hur det ser ut för övrigt på en pulsar­planet kan astronomerna egentligen bara gissa sig till. Eftersom en pulsar är en död stjärna, som inte längre ger ifrån sig mycket till värme, är det emellertid rimligt att anta att det är ordentligt kallt på en pulsarplanet.
En pulsar förser inte heller sina planeter med värst mycket ljus. Sedd från planeternas yta är pulsaren nämligen inte mycket mer än en prick på himlen. Däremot är det mycket möjligt att den strålning som regnar ner över planeterna ger upphov till norrskensliknande fenomen som lyser upp den annars mörka himlen på dessa djupfrysta, livlösa världar.
Den efterlängtade upptäckten av en stoftskiva kring en pulsar bevisar visserligen att de svåra förhållandena inte lyckas hindra nya planeter från att bildas, vilket är uppmuntrande, men mörkret, kylan och strålningen gör det definitivt inte lätt för dem.


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In the previous post to see how it should be a journey through the worlds of the Solar System, as the current space probes. Now I will go further: how could it be a journey between the stars, or better yet, one galaxy to another?

Above all it should be noted that features such a trip will be vetoed, at least for the next one hundred years (perhaps a thousand or more in the second case, or may not ever reach). But obviously this, and suppose that we acquired the technology (and also a new psychology to deal with them) to them, or better yet, we suppose an alien civilization. What do feel when you look through our bull's eye?

Vastness, emptiness, vertigo, yes. Are the stars closer to us quickly and disappear almost instantaneously? No. At least not if you travel with the technological means at our disposal, but with other more sophisticated forms of transportation, who knows, perhaps the science fiction films do not walk so misleading about how it should be a walk in the Milky Way. It is not helpful to enter into technical details about it, just imagine, so let's take some liberties.

Suppose that part of our planet (as Earth or anything else, no matter). Galactic space is extremely large: we could spend entire lives without traveling ever encounter with a star, they are indeed as tiny flecks of land between a giant ocean. Guided by technology, we could pass through our solar system, go to the interplanetary space, leaving unknown stars appear before our eyes and other never seen before, to escape the galactic plane and have a look at our galaxy from the outside, as we see a other islands of similar stars (such as NGC 1365, shown above).

Can that our galaxy is organized and divided into quadrants, sectors, sites or districts, as imagined by the writers of science fiction? Possibly. What is the policy, no longer a world in a solar system, but of an entire galaxy? How could I achieve a lasting and perpetual peace between the countless planets and civilizations, to be sure, must complete the Cosmos? Will there be a kind of galactic government to preserve stability in space and time?

Can we imagine what would be, moreover, their modes of thought, of existence? Mental systems may have advanced so that their actions have no physical reality to us, or are so subtle that it lacks the ability to detect sensory. Will religions, music, live according to moral rules, or this is excluivo heritage of mankind?

From there, will there be a stellar list of how many stars have planets with life around them and within which there are intelligent beings, as in the short story "stupid Donkeys" by Asimov? Are we about to enter it, we? You have already done, or ever will have the privilege not to respond to standards of "humanity" among us, with our brothers for showing us aggressive, vile and despicable, as could see the eyes of everyday people truly evolved?

Should we imagine they already know about us? Or, conversely, traveling between stars are difficult to perform even for them? Perhaps the physical and mental development can be faster than the technology at a certain limit, beyond which any progress is slow and gradual. Is it feasible, in order, travel between the stars?

I imagine that yes, should be. There were thousands of millions of planets, for sure. In a life has taken root, and it is enough that the evolution has brought them the intelligence and consciousness. It is logical that there are worlds where life evolved, but by the same rule can have a much greater development. And therein, perhaps, some day get the spark of ingenuity required to overcome the barriers of relativity and to make travel between a distant star everyday.

Four hundred years ago a boat trip from Spain to the New World employed several months, today we do in a few hours. Admittedly, we speak of a completely different space-time, and that the impediments of the physical limitations are very important not had the time, but what counts is that in these past centuries contemplábamos travel thousands of miles in a few hours impossible. Why can not we dream that the difficulties we see now for a journey between the stars will be resolved some day?

We need to go there, get in deep contact with the Cosmos. We are doing this on Earth, or venturing out beyond the skin, for some lucky (and wealthy) human, but that is a surface contact. We must penetrate the gap and find out what awaits us there. We need to know the unimaginable, and discover the true face of the universe. Maybe this century, which has already traveled almost a decade, give us the key to achieving this.

A fabulous collection of galaxies wild

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A fabulous collection of galaxies wild
The largest collection of images from the Hubble Space Telescope have been released to the public as a whole: 59 new images of galaxy collisions.

Galactic interactions are found throughout the Universe, sometimes as dramatic collisions that trigger the formation of stars, and other occasions are stealthy mergers that result in new galaxies.
A series of 59 new images of galactic collisions have been released for several terabytes of archive footage of the Hubble Space Telescope as a way to remember the 18th anniversary of the launch of the telescope. It is the largest collection of Hubble images released to the public simultaneously.

You can see in the Image Gallery of mergers of galaxies by Hubble

Mergers of galaxies, which were more common in the early universe that the current is thought to be the main source of cosmic evolution, turning on quasars, frenzied awakening births and explosive stellar deaths of stars. Even apparently isolated galaxies show signs in their internal structure have experienced one or more mergers in their past. Each of the several mergers in this series of images is a shot of a different instant in the long process of interaction.

Our own Milky Way contains the remains of many smaller galaxies it has encountered and devoured in the past and is currently absorbing the dwarf elliptical galaxy Saggitarius. In turn, the Milky Way appears to be part of our giant neighbor, the Andromeda galaxy, resulting in an elliptical galaxy.

The pull of the Moon that produces the upward and downward oceans illustrates the nature of the tide. This force between galaxies is much more harmful for two main reasons. Firstly, stars in galaxies, are together only by force of gravity. Second, because the galaxies can pass much closer to each other, relative to their size, the Earth and Moon. The billions of stars in each galaxy interaction move individually, following the pull of gravity of all the other stars, so the tidal forces can produce the most intricate effects.
An amazing atlas of galactic interactions that produce a remarkable variety of intricate structures