My OperaAmritsar (Punjab, INDIA)
Friday, September 15, 2006 9:52:40 AM
Shining in the morning light, the gilded splendor of its paneling and big dome and small minarets, this temple is a fairy world palace to the devotees of the Sikh faith. Certainly, the first look brings onto the innocent eye the image of a transcendent fact The «loving sight» peering into heaven from the legends of the miraculous cures by the touch of the water in the pool of nectar, in which the shrine stands makes for ecstatic awareness. The vision has been received by millions of pilgrims who have come here for centuries from near and far.
The actual construction had modest beginnings: A mud-house was constructed by Guru Amar Das, who is said to have found on the edge of the pool the magical herb which cured a skin ailment of his master Guru Angad. The Amrit Sarovar remained a village tank, until the fourth Guru Ram Das began to carry out the plans of his mentor for a more permanent structure in brick.
Chak, Chak-Guru, Guru-ka-chak, Chak-Guru-Ram-Das, Ram-Das-Pura, were the names of Amritsar in those times. The temple on the banks of the pool of nectar was surrounded by the houses of the craftsmen from the towns of Patti, Kasur and Kalanur, who came to build the holy place. The only market was then called Guru-ka-bazar, still known by that name, though more populous.
Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth. master, who came to the spiritual throne in 1581, felt from the growing popularity of the shrine as a pilgrim center the need to have the tank paved on the four sides and the steps of Hari Mandir bricked. The devotees joined to construct the temple, which would be lived in during the everyday life, where the infinite mystery would be revealed to those who may want to see. Already, however, the demand to create a paradise on earth became urgent, from the vision of Arjan Dev, of many simple hearts coming, with dipped eyes over joined hands, to pray and touch the holy water on their foreheads. So this Guru had the structure of the Hari Mandir planned in such a way that the outsight, might afford the insight. The present causeway leading to the Hari Mandir was then designed, with the rectangular shape of the circumambulatory walk ending at the gateway, from which the path to Reality began. And to combine, symbolically, the noblest truth of Islam about One God with the faith in the Hindu God Hari and his many incarnations, the Muslim divine, Mian Mir of Lahore, is said to have been invited by Guru Arjan Dev to lay the foundation stone of the temple in A.D. 1588. The structure of the shrine also mixed the rectangular form of the Hindu temple with the dome and minarets of the Muslims.
Hallowed by the meditations of holymen, the blood of martyrs defending the Sikh faith against imperial oppression, a refuge to the sick and weary, the faithful held on to the center against many onslaughts and the rhythms of the universal life seemed to secure the pilgrims in the belief that the essential self exists in and through and behind the flow of the obvious states.
And as the universe of calm survived in the midst of all the inclemency of change, the first Sikh Emperor, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, made the pool of nectar the spiritual capital, while Lahore was the temporal seat of his newly founded kingdom. The gilding of the embossed plate, above the marble skirt of the Hari Mandir, the renewal of the pietre dure, the embellishment of the interior, with lovely ceilings, adorned with Horal reliefs and little mirrors, were all renovated, finished and perfected under the patronage of the great general, so that men and women may brood upon the inner splendor, after gazing at the beauty and wonder of the outer house and body of God.
The Sikhs have always retained, in spite of the militancy they were forced to adopt to defend their order against the, enemies of their reformation, the injunction of Guru Nanak that you can range from yourself to the stars and the moral law, if you contemplate the Nam in the quiet of your heart.
As an eclectic monument, which has grown from the devotion of the folk, as much as through the skill of the craftsmen of the guilds, the Golden Temple achieves the kind of romantic glory which flouts convention, answers to the mood of astonishment, and compels humility before the inner sight.
THE POOL OF NECTAR
One of the most fascinating cities of northern India, Amritsar is also one of the most ancient and legendary sites in the Punjab. According to popular belief – which is doubtless of local origin – Valmiki wrote his celebrated epic, the Ramayana, near around this hallowed site of the «Pool of Nectar». It was here, too, that Sita stayed during the period of her vanavasa (banishment). Here again, the twin sons of Lord Rama, were taught the Ramayana. Yet another legend identifies the site of this pool with the place where the whole of Lord Rama's army was destroyed by his sons, Lava and Kusa, and relates how at that time a jug of nectar descended from heaven to restore the soldiers to life.
Valmiki's ashram, it is said, lay within a short distance of the renowned «Pool of Nectar». In Valmiki's time, the area was a thick forest. There were around Valmiki's ashram some more tanks with historical associations. One such hexagonal tank, Ram Tirth, is at a distance of around 1.1 kilometres from Amritsar; the others are Ramsar, Santokhsar, Ram Talai and Durgiana.
Guru Ram Das must have known-the legendary importance of the place when he sanctified the pool of nectar in the sixteenth century. The Sikh faith founded by the saint Nanak, of which Ram Das was the fourth Guru, was, in essence, a catholic and all-embracing faith. It took in its stride the egalitarian traditions of Islam and blended them with the transcendental wisdom of Hindu thought.
Actually, it was in 1574 A.D., that Guru Ram Das made his home by the side of the pool, which was regarded as blessed with miraculous powers of healing. The place where the Guru lived was known as Guru-ka-Mahal.
In 1577, Guru Ram Das, finding the air and water of his abode health-giving, purchased the pool and some surrounding land from its owners, the neighbouring Jats. Several times, Emperor Akbar had himself offered the grant of twelve villages to the pool, but the Guru had, on every occasion, declined the gift. One of the first acts of Guru Ram Das was to excavate the tank further, to construct a shrine at the centre.
On the first day of Magh Sankranti Vikrami Samvat 1645 (1588 A.D.), the foundation stone of this temple was laid by the renowned Muslim Sufi divine, Hazrat Mian Mir of Lahore, at the specific request of Guru Arjan Dev. The followers of the Guru built their houses in the neighbourhood. And thus there speedily came into existence a small town called Ramdaspur. The town derived its later name, Amritsar, from the holy tank or the Pool of Immortality, ig the centre of which now stands the Hari Mandir or Darbar Sahib – nowadays more commonly known as the Golden Temple.
The sacred building was completed by the son and successor of Guru Ram Das, Arjan Dev. In the lifetime of the fifth Guru, a flourishing town had begun to grow around the holy site. As the followers of Sikhism increased in number, the town grew in stature.
This holy site became the religious resort not only of the Sikhs but also of members of various communities seeking asylum from Imperial oppression. The Sikh Gurus encouraged all, irrespective of caste and creed, to come to reside in Amritsar. Thus an atmosphere of religious tolerance prevailed. And the city became a kind of refuge not only for holy men but for fighters of freedom.
Writing in 1831, V. Jacquemont observes: «This Rome of the Punjab has no Pope; the descendants of Nanak all live on the left bank of the Sutlej. The guardian of the sacred tank at Amritsar is only a rich sardar and the post is not hereditary in the family. According to my conductor, the present guardian S. Jiwan Singh refused to allow me within the enclosure marking the site of excavation of this celebrated pool, for the possession of which so many battles were fought in the Punjab in the last century. Many times the Mussalmans filled it with the ruins of the surrounding houses and soiled it with the victims of their cruel intolerance. But, when victory reopened to the Sikhs the gates of Amritsar, they carried out bloody reprisals and washed the steps of the sacred pool with the blood of Mussalmans. The two minarets which overlook it, though Muhammedan in style, were erected by the Sikhs not more than thirty years ago. Ranjit has a palace in the city on the edge of the pool; there are also others belonging to the leading Sardars of the Punjab.»
By the second half of the eighteenth century, «the chiefs of different misls had gained influence over the city in separate small principalities or quarters called Katras, where they exercised their jurisdiction and executed civic administration. Assisted by Missar Chajju Mal, Sada Kaur ruled over Katra Kanhaiya; Sardar Jaimal Singh managed Katra Jaimal Singh, and Sardar Bhag Singh Bagha, a Sanskrit and Persian scholar and cannon-maker, was in charge of Katra Bhaggian. Katra Ramgarhia and Katra Ahluwalian were held jointly by Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia and Nawab Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, the founder of Ahluwalia misl and of Kapurthala State. These chiefs built houses, Bungahs round the temple, roads, forts and bazars.»
The Ramgarhia misl was closely associated with the city of Amritsar. This misl took its name from Ram Rauni or «Fortalice of God» at Amritsar, a mud work...
«After Jassa Singh's death in 1803, a contract of friendship had been drawn up between Ranjit Singh and the Ramgarhia family at Amritsar before the Granth. Ranjit Singh stamped the papers with his open palm dyed with saffron... went to the Ramgarh fort and succeeded in capturing it with his artillery.» (Amritsar Past and Present by V. N. Datta, p. 23.)
It was in 1803 that this town was incorporated in the dominion of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The cultural, economic and political development of Amritsar was largely the work of this monarch who took great pains to make it the spiritual capital as well as the main commercial and cultural centre of his kingdom, while Lahore remained the political capital. He encouraged a great many nobles of the Lahore court and big merchants to settle in Amritsar. He expended large sums on the construction of a number of buildings.
The Golden Temple, as it stands today, with its luminous exterior plated with gold is chiefly the work of Ranjit Singh. He ordered the architectural shape of the Golden Temple to be redesigned. He took deep interest in getting the temple artistically decorated. For this purpose the Maharaja, made a grant of Rs. 500,000 in 1808 A.D. and invited skilled Muslim architects, masons and wood-carvers from Chaniot, now in Pakistan. Yar Mohammad Khan Mistri was the technical expert for gold plating, carried out in 1830.
Thus a group of Muslim architects, masons, carvers and other craftsmen were brought to Amritsar and lodged in a huge building known as Haveli Chaniotian, situated inside the Lahori Gate. (The Haveli Chaniotian was situated in Kucha Tarkhana, Gali Qabarwali. During the riots of 1947, this Haveli, along with its adjoining mosque, was demolished. The ruins of the mosque can still be.seen there, but there are absolutely no remnants of the haveli.) The entire Naqqashi (floral decoration) and Jaratkari (stone inlay) work was done by these artisans, under the supervision of Badaru-Mohiudin, the chief architect. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the task of completing the work fell on three Sikhs – Bhagwan Singh Jamadar, Mangal Singh Ramgarhia and Rai Bahadur Kalyan Singh. Later, when the Muslim craftsmen emigrated through lack of patronage, the rest of the work was completed by local Sikh and Hindu artisans.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh was fond of giving paintings, gold ornaments and fine textiles as gifts, in the course of his diplomatic dealings. Thus he had invited and patronized a number of skilled artisans and accomplished painters from the Pahari regions of Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Jodhpur. At his request, the Pahari painters (of whom only Parkhu's name is recorded) as well as some from Delhi, such as Jeevan Ram and Hasan-al-Din, came to settle in the plains of Punjab, both in Lahore and Amritsar. Along with the painters came the Pahari folk-songs and Pahari dishes as well.
The courtyard of the Golden Temple was extended and remodeled in our own time. Amenities for hundreds of devotees who visited the town every day were provided with a view to attract more settlers. Ranjit Singh had displayed remarkable foresight in inviting the Marwari traders to settle in Amritsar, for he knew well that trade had an important part to play in the evolution of a society. (Among these eminent Marwaris of the time, Seth Radha Krishan, a social worker, and Padma Prakash Maheshwari deserve special mention.)
During the reign of Ranjit Singh, a leading figure among these Marwari traders was Raja Vir Bhan: a scholar-priest, who brought along a number of Marwari merchants. He built a Saivite shrine, known as Vir Bhan-ka-Shivala (Vir Bhan was a devotee of Siva), inside the Ghee-Mandi Gate and commissioned painters to decorate its walls.
Through Ranjit Singh's initiative, Amritsar became a flourishing business centre. A business street now known as Katra Ahluwalian was at first Nauriah Bazar, named after a well-known community of the Marwaris. There is a popular tale retold by the old folk which further substantiates the habitation of Marwaris in this area: It is said that the Marwaris entreated Ranjit Singh to lay the foundation stone of Katra Ahluwalian. It was a momentary slip on his part that he laid the first brick in a slanting position, whereupon a priest, who was present on the occasion, predicted: «It is inauspicious that this has happened thus; now, instead of prosperity and good fortune, the reverse would befall.» Ranjit Singh, the noble and generous king that he was, allotted each shop for a paltry rupee and a quarter by way of compensation against the threat of any future loss.
Ranjit Singh also encouraged the nobles of his court to reside in Amritsar. This triple blend of trade, religion and aristocratic patronage was soon to find reflection in art and architecture. Numerous Hindu temples, palatial havelis and burjs (residences of the rich), akharas of the Mahants (priests), dharamshalas for the convenience of pious pilgrims, sprang up.
Amritsar, beginning from its pool of nectar, has remained the humming center of millions of devotees, the caravanserai of travelers, the greatest trade center of northern India, and an inspiration in the struggle for freedom for four centuries. And it will remain, what it has been since its foundation, the source of the passion for unity of faiths, which the Sikh Gurus preached for generations, as well as of the love that the poet-saint Nanak brought to a troubled world.
SRI HARI MANDIR SAHIB
The Hari Mandir, now called the Golden Temple, is a living symbol of the spiritual and historical traditions of the Sikhs. The tank and the temple have been a source of inspiration to the Sikh community ever since its foundation. It is evident from the Sikh chronicles that the Gurus exhorted their followers to accept all Sikh centers as places of pilgrimage. As Sri Hari Mandir Sahib was the first important holy shrine, it became, as the center of inspiration and action and the most significant achievement of the Gurus, the chief place of pilgrimage for the Sikhs.
The origin of the place where the Sri Hari Mandir stands is shrouded in mystery. Some trace its origin to the pre-historic, Vedic-epic period as a place of considerable religious importance in the form of a Amrit Kund (Spring of Nectar). But the site seems to have lost its eminence under the sway of the Buddhist movement, which swept away most of the important Hindu holy places. Before its association with the Sikh Gurus, the site of the Hari Mandir was a low-lying area, with a small pond (at the present site of the Dukh Bhanjani Beri – Healer of Sorrows), set in jungle terrain, surrounded by tiny hamlets. But the place was on the route of caravans passing to the North-West frontier and other old trade centers. However, the site of the temple lay desolate before it began to be visited by the Sikh Gurus.
Many popular myths and legends are connected with the origin of the Amrit Sarowar (Tank of Nectar). It is said that Guru Amar Das found on the banks of the pool the desired herb for the skin ailment of Guru Angad (the second Guru of the Sikhs). A persistent local tradition highlights the medicinal properties of the waters of the pond: Rajni, the daughter of Rai Dhuni Chand, a kardar (revenue collector) of Patti, brought her leper husband here and he was cured after having a dip in the pond. It is said that Ram Das (at that time, on a visit to a nearby area) came to the place to investigate the above episode and was so much impressed with the beauty of the surroundings that he decided to make it a pilgrim center.
The actual idea of establishing various places of pilgrimage had been conceived by Guru Amar Das. The predominant factor which motivated the Guru was to initiate centers where the traditions of the faith could be preached. The second factor was the consideration for the peaceful settlement of his future successor, Ram Das. In order to avoid all possibilities of clashes between his own progeny and the appointed successor Ram Das, Guru Amar Das deemed it better that his children stay at Goindwal and Ram Das settle at some new place.
The new pilgrim center lay amidst the villages of Sultanwind, Tung, Gumtala and Gilwali at that time in the pargana of Jhabbal. The acquisition of the site by the Sikh Gurus is told in different versions by different historians: That the land was granted by Emperor Akbar to Guru Amar Das as a token of thanksgiving for his conquest of the fort of Chittor, when he visited the Guru at Goindwal, enroute to Lahore, that it was acquired by Guru Ram Das before the grant was actually obtained or purchased by the Guru on payment of Rs. 700 from the Zamindars of Tung at the instance of Emperor Akbar, that it was presented by the people of Sultanwind to the Guru out of reverence.
There are no contemporary or near contemporary records and documents confirming the testimony to any of the above statements.
Whatever the version about the acquisition of the land, it appears that, originally, the site on which the temple stands was under the ownership of the zamindars of Tung village and later it was acquired by the Sikhs Gurus either on payment or free of cost.
It is certain, however, that the land of the Hari Mandir was revenue-free land. The papers of the land settlement of Amritsar of the British period dated A.D. 1865 record the land of Darbar Sahib Guru Ram Das as revenue-free grant.
The program of the new project was chalked out by Guru Amar Das and told to Ram Das. The latter was instructed to acquire funds for expenditure from Baba Buddha Ji. Some experienced, devout, elderly Sikhs were instructed to join Ram Das in carrying out the new project.
The plan was executed by Ram Das under the counsel of Baba Buddha Ji. The inauguration was in traditional Indian style, with distribution of sweets after prayers. The Guru made his abode by the site. Laborers were engaged. Many Sikh devotees came to work for the project. Before the regular excavation work of the tank began, a sort of village settlement had grown. First of all, a boundary line of the settlement was laid on 5 Har Vadi 18, Samvat 1627 BK, A.D. 1570' and it was named Chak, Chak Guru, Guru Ka Chak, Chak Guru Ram Das, Ram Das Pura. These were the previous names of Amritsar. Kilns were laid and a number of hutments were built. Members of over 50 caste-groups from Patti, Kasur and Kalanur were called to settle here, to assure a regular supply of essential commodities. A market called Guru-ka-bazar was established. Wells were dug and a good many rich sarafs (bankers) and banjaras (traders) came to the growing town.
The construction work of the tank and the town proceeded smoothly. But, while the work was in progress, Ram Das had to rush back to Goindwal at the call of the dying Guru Amar Das. The work was resumed on his return, after his pontification in A.D. 1577, and the construction of both the tank and the town was completed the same year.
Then the Guru called the khatris (business community) and told them to take charge of the holy place. But they pleaded their inability to perform religious duties and requested the Guru to engage some brahmins and fakirs (mendicants) to perform the ceremonies. But the khatris sought the blessings of the Guru for kirt and barkat to pursue their professions.
The Guru and his disciples were overjoyed on the completion of the new pilgrimage center. Guru Ram Das composed beautiful verses in the glory of the sarowar, making an injunction upon his followers to take bath in this holy tank and meditate here on Hari Nam (the name of God).
Soon after its foundation, Amritsar became the center of Guru Ram Das's missionary activities and the headquarters of the Sikh faith.
Amrit Sarowar remained enclosed in kachcha construction till Guru Arjan Dev ascended the gaddi in A.D. 1581. Then the tank was made pucca and the side stairs were bricked, but the bottom of the tank was still to be attended. The Sikhs showed great enthusiasm and devotion for seva (voluntary service) to complete the job. Construction work on the tank was completed in a short time. The successful completion of the project was attributed to the grace of God. Guru Arjan Dev expressed his thanksgiving in the words:
God Himself hath come to fulfill the
Task of the Saints
Yea, He Himself hath come to do the Work.
And, now, Blessed is the earth, the Tank and
the Nectar with which it is filled...[/I][/ALIGN]
The tank was named Amritsar. The town also came to be called by the same name.
While the tank was under construction, Guru Arjan Dev consulted Baba Buddha Ji and expressed his wish to raise a beautiful permanent structure in the pool of nectar. The plan of the present Hari Mandir was t'hen projected by Guru Arjan Dev. It was decided by the Guru to build the temple in the centre of the tank. The object of Guru Arjan Dev in planning the structure of the Hari Mandir in the middle of Amrit Sarowar was to combine both spiritual and temporal aspects, to represent a new synthesis of Indian thought, the combination of Nirgun and Sargun. The leaders of the Sikh community and the devotees of the Guru welcomed the new plan.
The plan was executed under the direct control and supervision of Guru Arjan Dev assisted by Baba Buddha Ji, Bhai Gurudas and other devoted Sikhs. The Guru appointed his trustworthy followers, such as Bhai Salo, Bhai Bhagtu, Bhai Paira, Bhai Bahlo and Bhai Kalyana, to supervise the construction and arrange for building materials. The assignment of brickmaking was entrusted to Bhai Bahlo, an expert.
According to early Sikh tradition, the foundation stone of the Hari Mandir was laid by Guru Arjan Dev himself. (A related story tells us that a mason accidentally displaced a brick, on which the Guru expressed the fear that the foundation would have to be laid again in the future. This incident is mentioned in the Sikh sources written after the reconstruction of the Hari Mandir, in A.D. 1764, and is carried up to the late nineteenth century.) The recorded account is that Guru Arjan Dev laid the foundation of Hari Mandir on Ist Magh Samvat 1645 (A.D. 1588). However, the later Sikh tradition holds that the foundation was laid at. the request of Guru Arjan Dev by a Muslim divine, Pir Mian Mir of Lahore, in Samvat 1645 BK (A.D. 1588). This version is based on oral tradition and is not supported either by the early Sikh sources or any of the Persian accounts, including the biographies of Mian Mir.
The construction work of the new temple was undertaken with great enthusiasm. A large number of Sikhs participated in the work. Some of the Sikh devotees became legends and adorn the pages of the annals of Sikh literature. The solid foundation was laid on a level higher than the bottom of the tank with lime and bricks. Broad walls were built. A bridge connecting the temple with Darshani Deorhi (entrance gate) was constructed over the support of Surang Duraries (aqueducts) mehrabs and dats (arches).
Instead of building the Hari Mandir on a higher level, as was the custom in traditional Hindu temple architecture, the Guru built the shrine on a level lower than the surrounding ground. The visitors have to go down the steps in order to pay homage to the holy shrine. The other distinguishing feature of the structure of the Hari Mandir is that, unlike the Hindu temples which usually have only one gate, the Hari Mandir was made open on all the four sides; representing open entry to all, a privilege which was denied in the Hindu temples. The construction of the temple was accomplished in a continuous process. Even while the work was proceeding apace, news about the ambitious project spread far and wide and pilgrims began to visit Amritsar in large numbers. All the devotees contributed a share from their earnings to the construction fund. Rich people offered huge donations. The masands (Guru's agents) collected funds for the project, from far and near.
The tank and the temple rose in all the majesty of faith and beauty. Guru Arjan Dev sang a hymn to the glory of the holy place:
The Guru hath perfected my Ablution,
And, contemplating the Lord, my sins have been washed off.
The Golden Temple radiates the selflessness of the voluntary services offered by the Sikhs. The honest and hard work of the disciples were duly acknowledged by the Guru. All the Sikhs who offered seva as worship were rewarded.
Simultaneously with the construction of the temple, plans for the expansion of the town were taken up. The Sikhs were encouraged to settle in Amritsar. Consequently, the city became well populated.
Some of the inhabitants and traders of Lahore did not appreciate the town plan of Amritsar. They scoffed at the idea of a city around a big tank in a low lying area and feared a great risk to the investment during the rainy season when the raised level of the water would penetrate into the localities and damage the habitations. The businessmen of Amritsar were alarmed. They approached the Guru and expressed their fears. The Guru assured them all protection and foretold the future prospects of the city. Guru Arjan Dev composed the following hymn setting out the attributes of the holy town:
- Eternal is this eity of my Guru, my God.
- Contemplating (herein) the Name, I have attained Bliss.
With the construction of the Hari Mandir, Amritsar attained the status of Ath Sath Tirth. The fame of the newly constructed holy place spread far and wide. Local Sikhs visited the temple daily, while the Sikhs of nearby areas paid frequent visits. Those from afar came to Amritsar at least twice a year, on the occasion of Diwali and Baisakhi.
The next remarkable development of the Hari Mandir was the compilation of the sacred writings of the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev collected the genuine bani of the first four Sikh Gurus, to which he added his own compositions, as well as selections from the writings of the Hindu bhaktas, and Muslim saints. The selection for the holy scripture was based on the principle of the unity of God and the brotherhood of Man. While Guru Arjan Dev was busy preparing the holy volume, it was reported to Emperor Akbar by the enemies of the Guru that the book of the Sikhs under preparation contained some passages derogatory to Islam and Hinduism. The Emperor called on the Guru at Goindwal, enroute to north towards the end of A.D. 1598, and asked to see the sacred volume. Some hymns were read out to the Emperor and he was so pleased with the contents that Akbar readily acceded to the request of the Guru to remit the annual revenue of the district zamindars, hard pressed by the failure of the monsoon.
The successful intervention of the Guru earned him immense popularity with the Jats and zamindars of the area.
The holy scripture was compiled under the title of Adi Granth. As there was no binder at that time at Amritsar, the holy scripture was sent to Lahore through Bhai Bano." The Adi Granth was completed and was formally installed in the Hari Mandir on Bhadon Sudi Ikam Samvat 1661 BK (August, 1604).
Baba Buddha Ji was appointed the first granthi (head priest) of the temple. From that very day regular worship, kirtan and other religious services started at the shrine.
Soon the Hari Mandir became the principal place of wotship for the Sikhs. What the Hari Mandir and Amritsar were to mean to the Sikhs is best expressed in the words of Guru Arjan Dev: I have seen all places; there is not another like thee...
The Hari Mandir was destroyed by the Afghan invaders thrice (A.D. 1757, 1762 and 1764), and was finally rebuilt in its present shape and structure during the period of the Sikh misls (confederacies) in A.D. 1764. After the conquest of Sirhind on January 14, 1764, the Khalsa (Sikh Commonwealth) spread a sheet and collected offerings amounting to rupees nine lakhs.
The amount was deposited with leading bankers of Amritsar, like Mohan Mal, Bhag Mal Lamb, Shayam Bhabra and Kalyana Pasi. Bhai Des Raj, a khatri of the village Sur Singh, Amritsar district, known for his integrity, was placed in charge of all finance for the project, so that the building of the temple and the tank could be completed on schedule. Bhai Des Raj was granted the seal of «Guru Di Mohar» by the Khalsa to collect funds. The Sikhs regarded this mohar as a hukumnama (despatch) from their Gurus.
Construction work started under the supervision of Des Raj. This time the foundation of the temple was laid by Sardar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia on 1 1 Baisakh, Samvat 1821 BK (A.D. 1764). With the sustained efforts of the Khalsa, the construction of the Amrit Sarowar, the Hari Mandir, the bridge and the Darshani Deorhi was completed by Samvat 1833 BK (A.D. 1776). The construction of parkarma (circumambulatory) and religious places around the tank was completed by Samvat 1841 BK (A.D. 1784).
The Golden Temple is not only a place of worship but also a rallying centre of Sikh solidarity. It is the heritage of the Sikh people gathered in their five-hundred-year-old history. Legends and miracles are connected with the holy tank, while great martyrdoms and triumphs are associated with various spots in the temple precincts.
The story of the Golden Temple enshrines the romance of Man's quest for faith and ennobles the suffering and sacrifice of many. The undying impact of the quest is imprinted on the history, thought, literature and folklore of the Sikh peoples.
The words of Guru Arjan Dev still hearkens: «Dithe sab thao nahi tudh jehia.»
GURUDWARA BABA ATAL SAHIB
Gurudwara Baba Atal Sahib is situated to the south of the Golden Temple, about 185 metres from Sarai Guru Ram Das. The nine-storey octagonal tower, standing 40 metres high, is the tallest building in Amritsar.
Originally a samadhi, or cenotaph, enshrining the remains of Atal Rai, a son of Guru Hargobind, the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, it was transformed, with the passage of time, into a gurudwara, because, in India, «the process of deification is aided by the tendency to develop the tomb raised over a man of eminence into a temple».
According to popular tradition, Atal Rai, at the age of nine, restored his close friend Mohan, son of a widow, to life after his sudden demise. Guru Hargobind considered his son's act as being against the Sikh tradition and rebuked him for performing a feat involving a miracle and warned him that one's spiritual power should be displayed «in purity of doctrine and holiness of living». It is said that Atal Rai told his father that he would lay down his own life for breaking the law of nature by reviving his friend from the dead. So he went into a meditative trance and soon breathed his last. His pyre was lit on the bank of Kaulsar and, later on, to perpetuate his memory a monument was raised. Although Atal Rai died at the age of nine, he was honoured with the title of Baba, a grand old man, for the extraordinary powers he had displayed. The present nine-storey building represents the nine years of Baba Atal's life.
Different authors have given different dates of its erection.~ However, it appears that the present structure was raised sometime in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, with repairs and renovations extended from time to time. The edifice is so designed as to have a double octagonal structure, one rising exteriorly and the other interiorly – the former also serving as circumambulatory. The storeys rising on the exterior and bigger octagonal base terminate at the sixth level, but the interior and smaller octagonal base supports nine storeys, allowing the three upper storeys, surmounted by a gilded dome, to rise considerably above the high point of the exterior elevation. The walls are so solidly built that a double staircase runs to the very top through the breadth of the wall itself, with a provision for entrance at each floor.
There are four doors on the ground floor, one on each of the cardinal sides. However, the main entrance faces east. Within the interior octagonal elevation, also having four doors, is kept the Guru Granth Sahib, enshrined in a beautifully wrought brass canopy, surmounted by an exquisite chhatri. The doors are made of silver and brass with elegantly embossed designs. Brass plates embossed with figures recounting Sikh and Hindu themes are affixed in a set of three plates on each of the four outer doors. The embossed .brass sheets were presented by the devotees about the middle of the nineteenth century and after. A few of these bear names and addresses of the devotees and also the dates of presentation. The most typical and best specimens of the art of embossing on brass that thrived in Amritsar in the hands of craftsmen of Kucha Fakirkhana in the preceding century is seen in the plates embellishing the Baba Atal Gurudwara and one plate carries the trademark name of the craftsman.
The interior walls of the first floor are adorned with murals. Unfortunately, many of these have been'obliterated beyond recognition and at present only 42 panels survive. A large series of paintings unfold, stage by stage, the life of Guru Nanak. The first painting in the series represents all the gods requesting the Almighty to send a holy person to earth to relieve it of the burden of Kali Yuga; and the last depicts Guru Nanak appointing Angad Dev as his successor to the Guru gaddi. Another series represents Sikh martyrs, including the four. sons of Guru Gobind Singh, who laid down their lives for the cause of their faith.
Among the series of paintings pertaining to Guru Nanak, those depicting scenes from his childhood are of special interest. One of these, for instance, records a school scene, depicting Nanak, at the age of seven, commencing his education. Nanak, along with his father, Baba Kalu, is seated in front of the mullah, Kutbdin. Just at the start of the first lesson, young Nanak is seen explaining the meaning of the first letter to the mullah. Some of the pupils are waiting to show their phatti to the mullah, while others are either cleaning it or writing on it'.
Murals in a considerably damaged state are also to be seen at the deorhi or the first entrance to the shrine. Large panels illustrate scenes from the life of Baba Atal and Guru Nanak; and the various stages of the battle of Muketsar. There are also two series of paintings: one, presenting the ten Gurus; and, the other, depicting members of the whole lineage of Baba Buddha Ji. Sri Chand and Lakhmi Chand, two sons of Guru Nanak, are also portrayed. A few damaged paintings are also to be seen on the front wall of tosha khana, the treasury, located adjacent to the tower.
Michael Edwardes considers these murals to belong to the early nineteenth century. But there are two strong reasons that suggest a later date. First, no reference to Pandit Brij Nath, who appears in one of the paintings showing Guru Nanak being taught by him, is to be found in Janam Sakhis written before the early nineteenth century. Secondly, the calligraphic style of the Gurmukhi script seen in these paintings evidently relates to a later period. Therefore, these murals appear to have been executed in the last decade of the nineteenth century. It is believed that the muralist Mehtab Singh, born in 1871, executed these murals.
Most of the personages portrayed in paintings, except Nanak, are presented in profile. Indian red, ochre and other earth colours, with frequent touches of gold, establishes the key to the colour scheme. A sense of perspective and foreshortening, though not perfect, gives the illusion of depth and volume. The figures are projected with the help of light and shade.
The observations made here are based on a visit to the shrine in 1970. In 1971, the entire painted area was repainted in gaudy colours in a technique ill-suited to the old murals – all in the name of «renovation».
The poor and the needy are fed and helped in the gurudwara of Baba Atal. Throughout the day, devotees come to pay homage, bringing prepared eatables to be distributed among whosoever is present in the shrine. This has made the following saying popular among the people, not only of Amritsar but of the entire Punjab: «Baba Atal Pakian Pakaian Ghal» (Baba Atal sends prepared meals).
ART AND ARCHITECTURE[/ALIGN]
The study of the art and architecture of the Golden Temple has, unfortunately, remained a subject of unconcern for art historians and critics. Even scholars of Indian temple architecture have bypassed it and references, whenever made, were mere courtesies. Fergusson considered the Golden Temple an example of the forms which Hindu temple architecture assumed in the nineteenth century. According to the official list of buildings of interest, published by the Punjab Government in 1875, the design of the temple, as reconstructed by Ranjit Singh, was borrowed from the shrine of Saint Mian Mir, near Lahore. Louis Rousselet, writing in 1882, regarded it as a «handsome style of architecture». Major Cole described it as an adaptation of Mohammadan styles, flavoured with a good deal of Hindu tradition. Percy Brown considered it to be a product of the synthesis of Hindu and Muslim influences, combined with elaborations that imparted it an appearance of its own. In the opinion of Hermann Goetz, Kangra transformation of Oudh architecture was taken over by the Sikhs and evolved into that wonderful, though occasionally gaudy, Indian «rococo» art often seen in the gurudwaras of Punjab. The architectural prototype of the Golden Temple came into being as an idea combining the dharamshala and the tank envisaged by Guru Arjan, the son and successor of Guru Ram Das. Instead of building the temple on a high plinth in the Hindu style, Guru Arjan had it built in a depression so that worshippers had to go down the steps in order to enter it. Also it had four entrances, symbolic of the new faith which made no distinction between the four Hindu castes. Although there is no written record or contemporary sketch giving the concept of the prototype, it appears to have been, more or less, similar to the present structure dating from 1764, with the greater part of its decoration added in the early years of the nineteenth century. The year 1764 has been ascribed by H. H. Cole in his monograph on the temple .published in 1884. However, in Tawarikh Sri Amritsar, published in 1889, Giani Gian Singh states that the tank, the Hari Mandir, the causeway and Darshani Deorhi were completed in 1776.
The main structure rises from the centre of the sacred pool, 150 metres square, approached by a causeway about 60 metres long. An archway on the western side of the pool opens on to the causeway, bordered with balustrades of fretted marble, and, at close intervals, there are standard lamps, their great lanterns set upon marble columns. The 52-metre square-based Hari Mandir, to which the causeway leads, stands on a 20-metre square platform. Its lower parts are of white marble, but the upper parts are covered with plates of gilded copper. In the interior, on the ground floor, is the Guru Granth Sahib, placed under a gorgeous canopy, studded with jewels. On the second storey is a pavilion known as Shish Mahal or Mirror Room, so designed as to have a square opening in the centre to view from there the ground floor, with the further provision of a narrow circumambulatory around the square opening.
The interior of the Shish Mahal is ornamented with small pieces of mirror, of various sizes and shapes, skilfully inlaid in the ceiling, and walls richly embellished with designs, mostly floral in character.
Further above the Shish Mahal is again a small square pavilion, considerably small both at its base as well as in its elevation, surmounted by a low fluted golden dome, lined at its base with a number of smaller domes. The walls of the two lower storeys, forming parapets, terminate with several rounded pinnacles. There are four chhatris or kiosks at the corners. The combination of several dozens of large, medium and miniature domes of gilded copper create a unique and dazzling effect, enhanced by the reflection in the water below.
The typical art and architectural features of the Golden Temple can be summed up as (1) multiplicity of chhatris which ornament the parapets, angles at every prominence or projection; (2) the invariable use of fluted domes covered with gilded copper; (3) balconised windows thrown out on carved brackets or bay-windows with shallow elliptical cornices; and (4) enrichment of walls, arches and ceilings by various forms of mural art.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh repaired the principal building in 1802 A.D. This act is commemorated by an inscription over the entrance to the central shrine, which reads: The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharaja Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor and Sikh, and, in His benevolence, bestowed on him the privilege of serving the temple.
To roof the temple with sheets of gilded copper, he donated Rs. 500,000 and the work was executed by Mistri Yar Mohammad Khan, under the supervision of Bhai Sand Singh. The first plate on the temple was fixed in 1803 A.D. The personages who donated for the embellishment of the ceiling on the ground floor included Tara Singh Gheba, Pratap Singh, Jodh Singh and Ganda Singh Peshawari, the last of whom made his contribution in 1823 A.D. The archway under the Darshani Deorhi was embellished with sheets of gilded copper by Sangat Singh, the Raja of Jind. Being the central shrine of the Sikhs, almost every sardar of any pretension contributed to its architectural and decorative additions from time to time. That is why it is not feasible, except for a few date-inscribed works, to make a chronological account of the decorations, murals or other work, in the Golden Temple.
The decorations which fall strictly in the category of mural painting are floral patterns interspersed with animal motifs. There are about 300 different patterns on the walls, which, from a distance, look like hung Persian carpets. The naqqashes, or painters, of these patterns had developed a terminology of their own to distinguish various designs. Among these the most prominent is known by the name of Dehin: a medium of expression of the imaginative study of the artist's own creation of idealised forms. Gharwanjh is the base of Dehin. This is also a decorative device involving knotted grapples between animals. In the Golden Temple are seen Ghawanj showing cobras, lions and elephants clutching one another, carrying flower vases in which fruits and fairies have been depicted. Patta is a decorative border design used around the Dehin and often depicted through creepers. There are also compositions based on aqdatic creatures.
The only mural depicting human figures is to be seen on the wall behind the northern narrow stairway leading to the top of the shrine, representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. According to the late Bhai Gian Singh Naqqash, it was painted by a Kangra artist specially commissioned by Ranjit Singh for this purpose. It is said to be a true copy of a miniature painting that originally was in the collection of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, which Ranjit Singh had intended to get copied in the form of a mural in the Golden Temple. Since the artist of the miniature in question had already died, the mural was executed by the painter's grandson. The name of the painter, however, is not known.
Paintings depicting mythological scenes referred to by H. H. Cole have entirely disappeared. Writing in 1878, W. Wakefield referred to erotic frescoes that covered the walls of the Golden Temple. However, in the absence of any other corroborative observation, his statement is of dubious value.
In addition to the work that falls strictly under the category of mural painting, a great volume of similar work in allied arts, loosely coming in the range of mural arts, has been done in the Golden Temple from time to time. This includes the work in embossed copper, gach, tukri, jaratkari and ivory inlay.
Most of the exterior upper portions of the walls of the Golden Temple are covered with beaten copper plates, heavily gilded. The raised decorations are mainly floral and abstract, but there are some panels representing the human figure. On the front side, for instance, are two embossed copper panels, the lower representing Guru Nanak flanked by Bala and Mardana, and the upper representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback.
Gach, a sort of stone or gypsum, was treated to form a paste and was applied on the wall like lime. Then it was fashioned out in designs with steel cutters and other implements. Gach work inlaid with coloured glass was known as tukri work and is to be seen in the second storey of the Shish Mahal. Jaratkari work involved the inlaying of coloured cut-stones in marble and is to be found on the lower portion of the exterior walls of the temple. In fact, the work is pietre dure and the inlay consists of semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and onyx. The designs are Mughal in spirit, but the introduction of human figures, never shown in true Mughal decorations, reveals their Sikh origin.
The ivory inlay work is to be seen only on the doors of the Darshani Deorhi. The gate is made of shisham wood, the front overlaid with silver, the back inlaid with ivory. The silver-plated front is ornamented only with panels. At the back are square and rectangular panels with geometrical and floral designs, in which are introduced birds, lions, tigers and deer. Some of the ivory inlay is coloured green and red, the effect being, in the words of H. H. Cole, «extremely harmonious.»
Most of the painters and craftsmen, who worked in various branches of mural arts and its appurtenances in the Golden Temple, remained unknown. Therefore, barring a very few works, it is almost impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to attribute them to particular painters and craftsmen. The late Bhai Hari Singh, himself an artist, prepared a list consisting of twenty names of painters and craftsmen who worked in the Golden Temple. This list serially included the names of Baba Kishan Singh, Baba Bishan Singh, Kapur Singh, Bhai Kehar Singh, Mahant Ishar Singh, Bhai Sardul Singh, Bhai Jawahar Singh, Bhai Metab Singh, Mistri Jaimal Singh, Bhai Harnam Singh, Bhai Ishar Singh, Bhai Gian Singh, Lal Singh Tarn Taran, Bhai Mangal Singh, Mistri Narain Singh, Mistri Jit Singh, Bhai Atma Singh, Baba Darja Mal and Bhai Vir Singh. A good deal of the old work, particularly mural in character, has disappeared from the precincts of the Golden Temple. Initially, the disappearance of murals started at the close of the nineteenth century, when devotees were permitted to present contributions in the form of inlaid marble slabs, which were fixed on the walls painted with frescoes. The old Bungas of the Golden Temple, which have been demolished, were repositories of splendid paintings. Inside the main Darshani Deorhi, where marble slabs have been fixed, there were fine paintings by Mahant Ishar Singh.
Efforts have alsq been made to renovate the decaying paintings in the, temple proper. But there appears not much reason to regret the loss, because, in the words of Michael Edwardes, the Golden Temple «is a symbol, glowing in richness and colour. That richness has, over the years, been constantly renewed, not always perhaps in the best of taste. But the Hari Mandir is not a museum. On the contrary, it is a shrine, part of the essential machinery of a living faith.»
AKAL TAKHT[/ALIGN]
There is no evidence to show exactly when the Akal Takht was built. From the amplitude of the near cantilever projection of the semi-circular platform onto a large square below, the throne of Akal seems to be a highly dramatised Durbar hall larger than that built by any Mughal Emperor in Delhi or Agra.
It is quite likely that, fighting from a temporal and spiritual kingdom placed in the heartland of Punjab in Amritsar, the Guru, who put on two swords, that of the faith and of the emergent Sikh kingdom, had it built to give audiences to his followers.
At any rate, the convention seems to have been established to address all important gatherings, religious, social and political, from the Akal Takht to the amphitheatre below. This became the practice certainly during the important Gurpurbs, or the birthdays of the Gurus, when a vast congregation would assemble to hear recitations from the scriptures. The elaboration of the structure on marble pillars, as a semi-circular platform with an open view to the courtyard, reminiscent of an air-house, must have grown from the use to which the Durbar hall was put.
The gilding of the ceiling with ornamentations like those in the interior of the Hari Mandir is perhaps later than in the holy of holies. The wall paintings apparently belong to a later period, as there are panels showing Europeans.
The total effect of the Akal Takht is of a unique and noble structure spread out somewhat like an outer court of the piazza Saint Marco in Venice.
The actual construction had modest beginnings: A mud-house was constructed by Guru Amar Das, who is said to have found on the edge of the pool the magical herb which cured a skin ailment of his master Guru Angad. The Amrit Sarovar remained a village tank, until the fourth Guru Ram Das began to carry out the plans of his mentor for a more permanent structure in brick.
Chak, Chak-Guru, Guru-ka-chak, Chak-Guru-Ram-Das, Ram-Das-Pura, were the names of Amritsar in those times. The temple on the banks of the pool of nectar was surrounded by the houses of the craftsmen from the towns of Patti, Kasur and Kalanur, who came to build the holy place. The only market was then called Guru-ka-bazar, still known by that name, though more populous.
Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth. master, who came to the spiritual throne in 1581, felt from the growing popularity of the shrine as a pilgrim center the need to have the tank paved on the four sides and the steps of Hari Mandir bricked. The devotees joined to construct the temple, which would be lived in during the everyday life, where the infinite mystery would be revealed to those who may want to see. Already, however, the demand to create a paradise on earth became urgent, from the vision of Arjan Dev, of many simple hearts coming, with dipped eyes over joined hands, to pray and touch the holy water on their foreheads. So this Guru had the structure of the Hari Mandir planned in such a way that the outsight, might afford the insight. The present causeway leading to the Hari Mandir was then designed, with the rectangular shape of the circumambulatory walk ending at the gateway, from which the path to Reality began. And to combine, symbolically, the noblest truth of Islam about One God with the faith in the Hindu God Hari and his many incarnations, the Muslim divine, Mian Mir of Lahore, is said to have been invited by Guru Arjan Dev to lay the foundation stone of the temple in A.D. 1588. The structure of the shrine also mixed the rectangular form of the Hindu temple with the dome and minarets of the Muslims.
Hallowed by the meditations of holymen, the blood of martyrs defending the Sikh faith against imperial oppression, a refuge to the sick and weary, the faithful held on to the center against many onslaughts and the rhythms of the universal life seemed to secure the pilgrims in the belief that the essential self exists in and through and behind the flow of the obvious states.
And as the universe of calm survived in the midst of all the inclemency of change, the first Sikh Emperor, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, made the pool of nectar the spiritual capital, while Lahore was the temporal seat of his newly founded kingdom. The gilding of the embossed plate, above the marble skirt of the Hari Mandir, the renewal of the pietre dure, the embellishment of the interior, with lovely ceilings, adorned with Horal reliefs and little mirrors, were all renovated, finished and perfected under the patronage of the great general, so that men and women may brood upon the inner splendor, after gazing at the beauty and wonder of the outer house and body of God.
The Sikhs have always retained, in spite of the militancy they were forced to adopt to defend their order against the, enemies of their reformation, the injunction of Guru Nanak that you can range from yourself to the stars and the moral law, if you contemplate the Nam in the quiet of your heart.
As an eclectic monument, which has grown from the devotion of the folk, as much as through the skill of the craftsmen of the guilds, the Golden Temple achieves the kind of romantic glory which flouts convention, answers to the mood of astonishment, and compels humility before the inner sight.
THE POOL OF NECTAR
One of the most fascinating cities of northern India, Amritsar is also one of the most ancient and legendary sites in the Punjab. According to popular belief – which is doubtless of local origin – Valmiki wrote his celebrated epic, the Ramayana, near around this hallowed site of the «Pool of Nectar». It was here, too, that Sita stayed during the period of her vanavasa (banishment). Here again, the twin sons of Lord Rama, were taught the Ramayana. Yet another legend identifies the site of this pool with the place where the whole of Lord Rama's army was destroyed by his sons, Lava and Kusa, and relates how at that time a jug of nectar descended from heaven to restore the soldiers to life.
Valmiki's ashram, it is said, lay within a short distance of the renowned «Pool of Nectar». In Valmiki's time, the area was a thick forest. There were around Valmiki's ashram some more tanks with historical associations. One such hexagonal tank, Ram Tirth, is at a distance of around 1.1 kilometres from Amritsar; the others are Ramsar, Santokhsar, Ram Talai and Durgiana.
Guru Ram Das must have known-the legendary importance of the place when he sanctified the pool of nectar in the sixteenth century. The Sikh faith founded by the saint Nanak, of which Ram Das was the fourth Guru, was, in essence, a catholic and all-embracing faith. It took in its stride the egalitarian traditions of Islam and blended them with the transcendental wisdom of Hindu thought.
Actually, it was in 1574 A.D., that Guru Ram Das made his home by the side of the pool, which was regarded as blessed with miraculous powers of healing. The place where the Guru lived was known as Guru-ka-Mahal.
In 1577, Guru Ram Das, finding the air and water of his abode health-giving, purchased the pool and some surrounding land from its owners, the neighbouring Jats. Several times, Emperor Akbar had himself offered the grant of twelve villages to the pool, but the Guru had, on every occasion, declined the gift. One of the first acts of Guru Ram Das was to excavate the tank further, to construct a shrine at the centre.
On the first day of Magh Sankranti Vikrami Samvat 1645 (1588 A.D.), the foundation stone of this temple was laid by the renowned Muslim Sufi divine, Hazrat Mian Mir of Lahore, at the specific request of Guru Arjan Dev. The followers of the Guru built their houses in the neighbourhood. And thus there speedily came into existence a small town called Ramdaspur. The town derived its later name, Amritsar, from the holy tank or the Pool of Immortality, ig the centre of which now stands the Hari Mandir or Darbar Sahib – nowadays more commonly known as the Golden Temple.
The sacred building was completed by the son and successor of Guru Ram Das, Arjan Dev. In the lifetime of the fifth Guru, a flourishing town had begun to grow around the holy site. As the followers of Sikhism increased in number, the town grew in stature.
This holy site became the religious resort not only of the Sikhs but also of members of various communities seeking asylum from Imperial oppression. The Sikh Gurus encouraged all, irrespective of caste and creed, to come to reside in Amritsar. Thus an atmosphere of religious tolerance prevailed. And the city became a kind of refuge not only for holy men but for fighters of freedom.
Writing in 1831, V. Jacquemont observes: «This Rome of the Punjab has no Pope; the descendants of Nanak all live on the left bank of the Sutlej. The guardian of the sacred tank at Amritsar is only a rich sardar and the post is not hereditary in the family. According to my conductor, the present guardian S. Jiwan Singh refused to allow me within the enclosure marking the site of excavation of this celebrated pool, for the possession of which so many battles were fought in the Punjab in the last century. Many times the Mussalmans filled it with the ruins of the surrounding houses and soiled it with the victims of their cruel intolerance. But, when victory reopened to the Sikhs the gates of Amritsar, they carried out bloody reprisals and washed the steps of the sacred pool with the blood of Mussalmans. The two minarets which overlook it, though Muhammedan in style, were erected by the Sikhs not more than thirty years ago. Ranjit has a palace in the city on the edge of the pool; there are also others belonging to the leading Sardars of the Punjab.»
By the second half of the eighteenth century, «the chiefs of different misls had gained influence over the city in separate small principalities or quarters called Katras, where they exercised their jurisdiction and executed civic administration. Assisted by Missar Chajju Mal, Sada Kaur ruled over Katra Kanhaiya; Sardar Jaimal Singh managed Katra Jaimal Singh, and Sardar Bhag Singh Bagha, a Sanskrit and Persian scholar and cannon-maker, was in charge of Katra Bhaggian. Katra Ramgarhia and Katra Ahluwalian were held jointly by Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia and Nawab Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, the founder of Ahluwalia misl and of Kapurthala State. These chiefs built houses, Bungahs round the temple, roads, forts and bazars.»
The Ramgarhia misl was closely associated with the city of Amritsar. This misl took its name from Ram Rauni or «Fortalice of God» at Amritsar, a mud work...
«After Jassa Singh's death in 1803, a contract of friendship had been drawn up between Ranjit Singh and the Ramgarhia family at Amritsar before the Granth. Ranjit Singh stamped the papers with his open palm dyed with saffron... went to the Ramgarh fort and succeeded in capturing it with his artillery.» (Amritsar Past and Present by V. N. Datta, p. 23.)
It was in 1803 that this town was incorporated in the dominion of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The cultural, economic and political development of Amritsar was largely the work of this monarch who took great pains to make it the spiritual capital as well as the main commercial and cultural centre of his kingdom, while Lahore remained the political capital. He encouraged a great many nobles of the Lahore court and big merchants to settle in Amritsar. He expended large sums on the construction of a number of buildings.
The Golden Temple, as it stands today, with its luminous exterior plated with gold is chiefly the work of Ranjit Singh. He ordered the architectural shape of the Golden Temple to be redesigned. He took deep interest in getting the temple artistically decorated. For this purpose the Maharaja, made a grant of Rs. 500,000 in 1808 A.D. and invited skilled Muslim architects, masons and wood-carvers from Chaniot, now in Pakistan. Yar Mohammad Khan Mistri was the technical expert for gold plating, carried out in 1830.
Thus a group of Muslim architects, masons, carvers and other craftsmen were brought to Amritsar and lodged in a huge building known as Haveli Chaniotian, situated inside the Lahori Gate. (The Haveli Chaniotian was situated in Kucha Tarkhana, Gali Qabarwali. During the riots of 1947, this Haveli, along with its adjoining mosque, was demolished. The ruins of the mosque can still be.seen there, but there are absolutely no remnants of the haveli.) The entire Naqqashi (floral decoration) and Jaratkari (stone inlay) work was done by these artisans, under the supervision of Badaru-Mohiudin, the chief architect. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the task of completing the work fell on three Sikhs – Bhagwan Singh Jamadar, Mangal Singh Ramgarhia and Rai Bahadur Kalyan Singh. Later, when the Muslim craftsmen emigrated through lack of patronage, the rest of the work was completed by local Sikh and Hindu artisans.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh was fond of giving paintings, gold ornaments and fine textiles as gifts, in the course of his diplomatic dealings. Thus he had invited and patronized a number of skilled artisans and accomplished painters from the Pahari regions of Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Jodhpur. At his request, the Pahari painters (of whom only Parkhu's name is recorded) as well as some from Delhi, such as Jeevan Ram and Hasan-al-Din, came to settle in the plains of Punjab, both in Lahore and Amritsar. Along with the painters came the Pahari folk-songs and Pahari dishes as well.
The courtyard of the Golden Temple was extended and remodeled in our own time. Amenities for hundreds of devotees who visited the town every day were provided with a view to attract more settlers. Ranjit Singh had displayed remarkable foresight in inviting the Marwari traders to settle in Amritsar, for he knew well that trade had an important part to play in the evolution of a society. (Among these eminent Marwaris of the time, Seth Radha Krishan, a social worker, and Padma Prakash Maheshwari deserve special mention.)
During the reign of Ranjit Singh, a leading figure among these Marwari traders was Raja Vir Bhan: a scholar-priest, who brought along a number of Marwari merchants. He built a Saivite shrine, known as Vir Bhan-ka-Shivala (Vir Bhan was a devotee of Siva), inside the Ghee-Mandi Gate and commissioned painters to decorate its walls.
Through Ranjit Singh's initiative, Amritsar became a flourishing business centre. A business street now known as Katra Ahluwalian was at first Nauriah Bazar, named after a well-known community of the Marwaris. There is a popular tale retold by the old folk which further substantiates the habitation of Marwaris in this area: It is said that the Marwaris entreated Ranjit Singh to lay the foundation stone of Katra Ahluwalian. It was a momentary slip on his part that he laid the first brick in a slanting position, whereupon a priest, who was present on the occasion, predicted: «It is inauspicious that this has happened thus; now, instead of prosperity and good fortune, the reverse would befall.» Ranjit Singh, the noble and generous king that he was, allotted each shop for a paltry rupee and a quarter by way of compensation against the threat of any future loss.
Ranjit Singh also encouraged the nobles of his court to reside in Amritsar. This triple blend of trade, religion and aristocratic patronage was soon to find reflection in art and architecture. Numerous Hindu temples, palatial havelis and burjs (residences of the rich), akharas of the Mahants (priests), dharamshalas for the convenience of pious pilgrims, sprang up.
Amritsar, beginning from its pool of nectar, has remained the humming center of millions of devotees, the caravanserai of travelers, the greatest trade center of northern India, and an inspiration in the struggle for freedom for four centuries. And it will remain, what it has been since its foundation, the source of the passion for unity of faiths, which the Sikh Gurus preached for generations, as well as of the love that the poet-saint Nanak brought to a troubled world.
SRI HARI MANDIR SAHIB
The Hari Mandir, now called the Golden Temple, is a living symbol of the spiritual and historical traditions of the Sikhs. The tank and the temple have been a source of inspiration to the Sikh community ever since its foundation. It is evident from the Sikh chronicles that the Gurus exhorted their followers to accept all Sikh centers as places of pilgrimage. As Sri Hari Mandir Sahib was the first important holy shrine, it became, as the center of inspiration and action and the most significant achievement of the Gurus, the chief place of pilgrimage for the Sikhs.
The origin of the place where the Sri Hari Mandir stands is shrouded in mystery. Some trace its origin to the pre-historic, Vedic-epic period as a place of considerable religious importance in the form of a Amrit Kund (Spring of Nectar). But the site seems to have lost its eminence under the sway of the Buddhist movement, which swept away most of the important Hindu holy places. Before its association with the Sikh Gurus, the site of the Hari Mandir was a low-lying area, with a small pond (at the present site of the Dukh Bhanjani Beri – Healer of Sorrows), set in jungle terrain, surrounded by tiny hamlets. But the place was on the route of caravans passing to the North-West frontier and other old trade centers. However, the site of the temple lay desolate before it began to be visited by the Sikh Gurus.
Many popular myths and legends are connected with the origin of the Amrit Sarowar (Tank of Nectar). It is said that Guru Amar Das found on the banks of the pool the desired herb for the skin ailment of Guru Angad (the second Guru of the Sikhs). A persistent local tradition highlights the medicinal properties of the waters of the pond: Rajni, the daughter of Rai Dhuni Chand, a kardar (revenue collector) of Patti, brought her leper husband here and he was cured after having a dip in the pond. It is said that Ram Das (at that time, on a visit to a nearby area) came to the place to investigate the above episode and was so much impressed with the beauty of the surroundings that he decided to make it a pilgrim center.
The actual idea of establishing various places of pilgrimage had been conceived by Guru Amar Das. The predominant factor which motivated the Guru was to initiate centers where the traditions of the faith could be preached. The second factor was the consideration for the peaceful settlement of his future successor, Ram Das. In order to avoid all possibilities of clashes between his own progeny and the appointed successor Ram Das, Guru Amar Das deemed it better that his children stay at Goindwal and Ram Das settle at some new place.
The new pilgrim center lay amidst the villages of Sultanwind, Tung, Gumtala and Gilwali at that time in the pargana of Jhabbal. The acquisition of the site by the Sikh Gurus is told in different versions by different historians: That the land was granted by Emperor Akbar to Guru Amar Das as a token of thanksgiving for his conquest of the fort of Chittor, when he visited the Guru at Goindwal, enroute to Lahore, that it was acquired by Guru Ram Das before the grant was actually obtained or purchased by the Guru on payment of Rs. 700 from the Zamindars of Tung at the instance of Emperor Akbar, that it was presented by the people of Sultanwind to the Guru out of reverence.
There are no contemporary or near contemporary records and documents confirming the testimony to any of the above statements.
Whatever the version about the acquisition of the land, it appears that, originally, the site on which the temple stands was under the ownership of the zamindars of Tung village and later it was acquired by the Sikhs Gurus either on payment or free of cost.
It is certain, however, that the land of the Hari Mandir was revenue-free land. The papers of the land settlement of Amritsar of the British period dated A.D. 1865 record the land of Darbar Sahib Guru Ram Das as revenue-free grant.
The program of the new project was chalked out by Guru Amar Das and told to Ram Das. The latter was instructed to acquire funds for expenditure from Baba Buddha Ji. Some experienced, devout, elderly Sikhs were instructed to join Ram Das in carrying out the new project.
The plan was executed by Ram Das under the counsel of Baba Buddha Ji. The inauguration was in traditional Indian style, with distribution of sweets after prayers. The Guru made his abode by the site. Laborers were engaged. Many Sikh devotees came to work for the project. Before the regular excavation work of the tank began, a sort of village settlement had grown. First of all, a boundary line of the settlement was laid on 5 Har Vadi 18, Samvat 1627 BK, A.D. 1570' and it was named Chak, Chak Guru, Guru Ka Chak, Chak Guru Ram Das, Ram Das Pura. These were the previous names of Amritsar. Kilns were laid and a number of hutments were built. Members of over 50 caste-groups from Patti, Kasur and Kalanur were called to settle here, to assure a regular supply of essential commodities. A market called Guru-ka-bazar was established. Wells were dug and a good many rich sarafs (bankers) and banjaras (traders) came to the growing town.
The construction work of the tank and the town proceeded smoothly. But, while the work was in progress, Ram Das had to rush back to Goindwal at the call of the dying Guru Amar Das. The work was resumed on his return, after his pontification in A.D. 1577, and the construction of both the tank and the town was completed the same year.
Then the Guru called the khatris (business community) and told them to take charge of the holy place. But they pleaded their inability to perform religious duties and requested the Guru to engage some brahmins and fakirs (mendicants) to perform the ceremonies. But the khatris sought the blessings of the Guru for kirt and barkat to pursue their professions.
The Guru and his disciples were overjoyed on the completion of the new pilgrimage center. Guru Ram Das composed beautiful verses in the glory of the sarowar, making an injunction upon his followers to take bath in this holy tank and meditate here on Hari Nam (the name of God).
Soon after its foundation, Amritsar became the center of Guru Ram Das's missionary activities and the headquarters of the Sikh faith.
Amrit Sarowar remained enclosed in kachcha construction till Guru Arjan Dev ascended the gaddi in A.D. 1581. Then the tank was made pucca and the side stairs were bricked, but the bottom of the tank was still to be attended. The Sikhs showed great enthusiasm and devotion for seva (voluntary service) to complete the job. Construction work on the tank was completed in a short time. The successful completion of the project was attributed to the grace of God. Guru Arjan Dev expressed his thanksgiving in the words:
God Himself hath come to fulfill the
Task of the Saints
Yea, He Himself hath come to do the Work.
And, now, Blessed is the earth, the Tank and
the Nectar with which it is filled...[/I][/ALIGN]
The tank was named Amritsar. The town also came to be called by the same name.
While the tank was under construction, Guru Arjan Dev consulted Baba Buddha Ji and expressed his wish to raise a beautiful permanent structure in the pool of nectar. The plan of the present Hari Mandir was t'hen projected by Guru Arjan Dev. It was decided by the Guru to build the temple in the centre of the tank. The object of Guru Arjan Dev in planning the structure of the Hari Mandir in the middle of Amrit Sarowar was to combine both spiritual and temporal aspects, to represent a new synthesis of Indian thought, the combination of Nirgun and Sargun. The leaders of the Sikh community and the devotees of the Guru welcomed the new plan.
The plan was executed under the direct control and supervision of Guru Arjan Dev assisted by Baba Buddha Ji, Bhai Gurudas and other devoted Sikhs. The Guru appointed his trustworthy followers, such as Bhai Salo, Bhai Bhagtu, Bhai Paira, Bhai Bahlo and Bhai Kalyana, to supervise the construction and arrange for building materials. The assignment of brickmaking was entrusted to Bhai Bahlo, an expert.
According to early Sikh tradition, the foundation stone of the Hari Mandir was laid by Guru Arjan Dev himself. (A related story tells us that a mason accidentally displaced a brick, on which the Guru expressed the fear that the foundation would have to be laid again in the future. This incident is mentioned in the Sikh sources written after the reconstruction of the Hari Mandir, in A.D. 1764, and is carried up to the late nineteenth century.) The recorded account is that Guru Arjan Dev laid the foundation of Hari Mandir on Ist Magh Samvat 1645 (A.D. 1588). However, the later Sikh tradition holds that the foundation was laid at. the request of Guru Arjan Dev by a Muslim divine, Pir Mian Mir of Lahore, in Samvat 1645 BK (A.D. 1588). This version is based on oral tradition and is not supported either by the early Sikh sources or any of the Persian accounts, including the biographies of Mian Mir.
The construction work of the new temple was undertaken with great enthusiasm. A large number of Sikhs participated in the work. Some of the Sikh devotees became legends and adorn the pages of the annals of Sikh literature. The solid foundation was laid on a level higher than the bottom of the tank with lime and bricks. Broad walls were built. A bridge connecting the temple with Darshani Deorhi (entrance gate) was constructed over the support of Surang Duraries (aqueducts) mehrabs and dats (arches).
Instead of building the Hari Mandir on a higher level, as was the custom in traditional Hindu temple architecture, the Guru built the shrine on a level lower than the surrounding ground. The visitors have to go down the steps in order to pay homage to the holy shrine. The other distinguishing feature of the structure of the Hari Mandir is that, unlike the Hindu temples which usually have only one gate, the Hari Mandir was made open on all the four sides; representing open entry to all, a privilege which was denied in the Hindu temples. The construction of the temple was accomplished in a continuous process. Even while the work was proceeding apace, news about the ambitious project spread far and wide and pilgrims began to visit Amritsar in large numbers. All the devotees contributed a share from their earnings to the construction fund. Rich people offered huge donations. The masands (Guru's agents) collected funds for the project, from far and near.
The tank and the temple rose in all the majesty of faith and beauty. Guru Arjan Dev sang a hymn to the glory of the holy place:
The Guru hath perfected my Ablution,
And, contemplating the Lord, my sins have been washed off.
The Golden Temple radiates the selflessness of the voluntary services offered by the Sikhs. The honest and hard work of the disciples were duly acknowledged by the Guru. All the Sikhs who offered seva as worship were rewarded.
Simultaneously with the construction of the temple, plans for the expansion of the town were taken up. The Sikhs were encouraged to settle in Amritsar. Consequently, the city became well populated.
Some of the inhabitants and traders of Lahore did not appreciate the town plan of Amritsar. They scoffed at the idea of a city around a big tank in a low lying area and feared a great risk to the investment during the rainy season when the raised level of the water would penetrate into the localities and damage the habitations. The businessmen of Amritsar were alarmed. They approached the Guru and expressed their fears. The Guru assured them all protection and foretold the future prospects of the city. Guru Arjan Dev composed the following hymn setting out the attributes of the holy town:
- Eternal is this eity of my Guru, my God.
- Contemplating (herein) the Name, I have attained Bliss.
With the construction of the Hari Mandir, Amritsar attained the status of Ath Sath Tirth. The fame of the newly constructed holy place spread far and wide. Local Sikhs visited the temple daily, while the Sikhs of nearby areas paid frequent visits. Those from afar came to Amritsar at least twice a year, on the occasion of Diwali and Baisakhi.
The next remarkable development of the Hari Mandir was the compilation of the sacred writings of the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev collected the genuine bani of the first four Sikh Gurus, to which he added his own compositions, as well as selections from the writings of the Hindu bhaktas, and Muslim saints. The selection for the holy scripture was based on the principle of the unity of God and the brotherhood of Man. While Guru Arjan Dev was busy preparing the holy volume, it was reported to Emperor Akbar by the enemies of the Guru that the book of the Sikhs under preparation contained some passages derogatory to Islam and Hinduism. The Emperor called on the Guru at Goindwal, enroute to north towards the end of A.D. 1598, and asked to see the sacred volume. Some hymns were read out to the Emperor and he was so pleased with the contents that Akbar readily acceded to the request of the Guru to remit the annual revenue of the district zamindars, hard pressed by the failure of the monsoon.
The successful intervention of the Guru earned him immense popularity with the Jats and zamindars of the area.
The holy scripture was compiled under the title of Adi Granth. As there was no binder at that time at Amritsar, the holy scripture was sent to Lahore through Bhai Bano." The Adi Granth was completed and was formally installed in the Hari Mandir on Bhadon Sudi Ikam Samvat 1661 BK (August, 1604).
Baba Buddha Ji was appointed the first granthi (head priest) of the temple. From that very day regular worship, kirtan and other religious services started at the shrine.
Soon the Hari Mandir became the principal place of wotship for the Sikhs. What the Hari Mandir and Amritsar were to mean to the Sikhs is best expressed in the words of Guru Arjan Dev: I have seen all places; there is not another like thee...
The Hari Mandir was destroyed by the Afghan invaders thrice (A.D. 1757, 1762 and 1764), and was finally rebuilt in its present shape and structure during the period of the Sikh misls (confederacies) in A.D. 1764. After the conquest of Sirhind on January 14, 1764, the Khalsa (Sikh Commonwealth) spread a sheet and collected offerings amounting to rupees nine lakhs.
The amount was deposited with leading bankers of Amritsar, like Mohan Mal, Bhag Mal Lamb, Shayam Bhabra and Kalyana Pasi. Bhai Des Raj, a khatri of the village Sur Singh, Amritsar district, known for his integrity, was placed in charge of all finance for the project, so that the building of the temple and the tank could be completed on schedule. Bhai Des Raj was granted the seal of «Guru Di Mohar» by the Khalsa to collect funds. The Sikhs regarded this mohar as a hukumnama (despatch) from their Gurus.
Construction work started under the supervision of Des Raj. This time the foundation of the temple was laid by Sardar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia on 1 1 Baisakh, Samvat 1821 BK (A.D. 1764). With the sustained efforts of the Khalsa, the construction of the Amrit Sarowar, the Hari Mandir, the bridge and the Darshani Deorhi was completed by Samvat 1833 BK (A.D. 1776). The construction of parkarma (circumambulatory) and religious places around the tank was completed by Samvat 1841 BK (A.D. 1784).
The Golden Temple is not only a place of worship but also a rallying centre of Sikh solidarity. It is the heritage of the Sikh people gathered in their five-hundred-year-old history. Legends and miracles are connected with the holy tank, while great martyrdoms and triumphs are associated with various spots in the temple precincts.
The story of the Golden Temple enshrines the romance of Man's quest for faith and ennobles the suffering and sacrifice of many. The undying impact of the quest is imprinted on the history, thought, literature and folklore of the Sikh peoples.
The words of Guru Arjan Dev still hearkens: «Dithe sab thao nahi tudh jehia.»
GURUDWARA BABA ATAL SAHIB
Gurudwara Baba Atal Sahib is situated to the south of the Golden Temple, about 185 metres from Sarai Guru Ram Das. The nine-storey octagonal tower, standing 40 metres high, is the tallest building in Amritsar.
Originally a samadhi, or cenotaph, enshrining the remains of Atal Rai, a son of Guru Hargobind, the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, it was transformed, with the passage of time, into a gurudwara, because, in India, «the process of deification is aided by the tendency to develop the tomb raised over a man of eminence into a temple».
According to popular tradition, Atal Rai, at the age of nine, restored his close friend Mohan, son of a widow, to life after his sudden demise. Guru Hargobind considered his son's act as being against the Sikh tradition and rebuked him for performing a feat involving a miracle and warned him that one's spiritual power should be displayed «in purity of doctrine and holiness of living». It is said that Atal Rai told his father that he would lay down his own life for breaking the law of nature by reviving his friend from the dead. So he went into a meditative trance and soon breathed his last. His pyre was lit on the bank of Kaulsar and, later on, to perpetuate his memory a monument was raised. Although Atal Rai died at the age of nine, he was honoured with the title of Baba, a grand old man, for the extraordinary powers he had displayed. The present nine-storey building represents the nine years of Baba Atal's life.
Different authors have given different dates of its erection.~ However, it appears that the present structure was raised sometime in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, with repairs and renovations extended from time to time. The edifice is so designed as to have a double octagonal structure, one rising exteriorly and the other interiorly – the former also serving as circumambulatory. The storeys rising on the exterior and bigger octagonal base terminate at the sixth level, but the interior and smaller octagonal base supports nine storeys, allowing the three upper storeys, surmounted by a gilded dome, to rise considerably above the high point of the exterior elevation. The walls are so solidly built that a double staircase runs to the very top through the breadth of the wall itself, with a provision for entrance at each floor.
There are four doors on the ground floor, one on each of the cardinal sides. However, the main entrance faces east. Within the interior octagonal elevation, also having four doors, is kept the Guru Granth Sahib, enshrined in a beautifully wrought brass canopy, surmounted by an exquisite chhatri. The doors are made of silver and brass with elegantly embossed designs. Brass plates embossed with figures recounting Sikh and Hindu themes are affixed in a set of three plates on each of the four outer doors. The embossed .brass sheets were presented by the devotees about the middle of the nineteenth century and after. A few of these bear names and addresses of the devotees and also the dates of presentation. The most typical and best specimens of the art of embossing on brass that thrived in Amritsar in the hands of craftsmen of Kucha Fakirkhana in the preceding century is seen in the plates embellishing the Baba Atal Gurudwara and one plate carries the trademark name of the craftsman.
The interior walls of the first floor are adorned with murals. Unfortunately, many of these have been'obliterated beyond recognition and at present only 42 panels survive. A large series of paintings unfold, stage by stage, the life of Guru Nanak. The first painting in the series represents all the gods requesting the Almighty to send a holy person to earth to relieve it of the burden of Kali Yuga; and the last depicts Guru Nanak appointing Angad Dev as his successor to the Guru gaddi. Another series represents Sikh martyrs, including the four. sons of Guru Gobind Singh, who laid down their lives for the cause of their faith.
Among the series of paintings pertaining to Guru Nanak, those depicting scenes from his childhood are of special interest. One of these, for instance, records a school scene, depicting Nanak, at the age of seven, commencing his education. Nanak, along with his father, Baba Kalu, is seated in front of the mullah, Kutbdin. Just at the start of the first lesson, young Nanak is seen explaining the meaning of the first letter to the mullah. Some of the pupils are waiting to show their phatti to the mullah, while others are either cleaning it or writing on it'.
Murals in a considerably damaged state are also to be seen at the deorhi or the first entrance to the shrine. Large panels illustrate scenes from the life of Baba Atal and Guru Nanak; and the various stages of the battle of Muketsar. There are also two series of paintings: one, presenting the ten Gurus; and, the other, depicting members of the whole lineage of Baba Buddha Ji. Sri Chand and Lakhmi Chand, two sons of Guru Nanak, are also portrayed. A few damaged paintings are also to be seen on the front wall of tosha khana, the treasury, located adjacent to the tower.
Michael Edwardes considers these murals to belong to the early nineteenth century. But there are two strong reasons that suggest a later date. First, no reference to Pandit Brij Nath, who appears in one of the paintings showing Guru Nanak being taught by him, is to be found in Janam Sakhis written before the early nineteenth century. Secondly, the calligraphic style of the Gurmukhi script seen in these paintings evidently relates to a later period. Therefore, these murals appear to have been executed in the last decade of the nineteenth century. It is believed that the muralist Mehtab Singh, born in 1871, executed these murals.
Most of the personages portrayed in paintings, except Nanak, are presented in profile. Indian red, ochre and other earth colours, with frequent touches of gold, establishes the key to the colour scheme. A sense of perspective and foreshortening, though not perfect, gives the illusion of depth and volume. The figures are projected with the help of light and shade.
The observations made here are based on a visit to the shrine in 1970. In 1971, the entire painted area was repainted in gaudy colours in a technique ill-suited to the old murals – all in the name of «renovation».
The poor and the needy are fed and helped in the gurudwara of Baba Atal. Throughout the day, devotees come to pay homage, bringing prepared eatables to be distributed among whosoever is present in the shrine. This has made the following saying popular among the people, not only of Amritsar but of the entire Punjab: «Baba Atal Pakian Pakaian Ghal» (Baba Atal sends prepared meals).
ART AND ARCHITECTURE[/ALIGN]
The study of the art and architecture of the Golden Temple has, unfortunately, remained a subject of unconcern for art historians and critics. Even scholars of Indian temple architecture have bypassed it and references, whenever made, were mere courtesies. Fergusson considered the Golden Temple an example of the forms which Hindu temple architecture assumed in the nineteenth century. According to the official list of buildings of interest, published by the Punjab Government in 1875, the design of the temple, as reconstructed by Ranjit Singh, was borrowed from the shrine of Saint Mian Mir, near Lahore. Louis Rousselet, writing in 1882, regarded it as a «handsome style of architecture». Major Cole described it as an adaptation of Mohammadan styles, flavoured with a good deal of Hindu tradition. Percy Brown considered it to be a product of the synthesis of Hindu and Muslim influences, combined with elaborations that imparted it an appearance of its own. In the opinion of Hermann Goetz, Kangra transformation of Oudh architecture was taken over by the Sikhs and evolved into that wonderful, though occasionally gaudy, Indian «rococo» art often seen in the gurudwaras of Punjab. The architectural prototype of the Golden Temple came into being as an idea combining the dharamshala and the tank envisaged by Guru Arjan, the son and successor of Guru Ram Das. Instead of building the temple on a high plinth in the Hindu style, Guru Arjan had it built in a depression so that worshippers had to go down the steps in order to enter it. Also it had four entrances, symbolic of the new faith which made no distinction between the four Hindu castes. Although there is no written record or contemporary sketch giving the concept of the prototype, it appears to have been, more or less, similar to the present structure dating from 1764, with the greater part of its decoration added in the early years of the nineteenth century. The year 1764 has been ascribed by H. H. Cole in his monograph on the temple .published in 1884. However, in Tawarikh Sri Amritsar, published in 1889, Giani Gian Singh states that the tank, the Hari Mandir, the causeway and Darshani Deorhi were completed in 1776.
The main structure rises from the centre of the sacred pool, 150 metres square, approached by a causeway about 60 metres long. An archway on the western side of the pool opens on to the causeway, bordered with balustrades of fretted marble, and, at close intervals, there are standard lamps, their great lanterns set upon marble columns. The 52-metre square-based Hari Mandir, to which the causeway leads, stands on a 20-metre square platform. Its lower parts are of white marble, but the upper parts are covered with plates of gilded copper. In the interior, on the ground floor, is the Guru Granth Sahib, placed under a gorgeous canopy, studded with jewels. On the second storey is a pavilion known as Shish Mahal or Mirror Room, so designed as to have a square opening in the centre to view from there the ground floor, with the further provision of a narrow circumambulatory around the square opening.
The interior of the Shish Mahal is ornamented with small pieces of mirror, of various sizes and shapes, skilfully inlaid in the ceiling, and walls richly embellished with designs, mostly floral in character.
Further above the Shish Mahal is again a small square pavilion, considerably small both at its base as well as in its elevation, surmounted by a low fluted golden dome, lined at its base with a number of smaller domes. The walls of the two lower storeys, forming parapets, terminate with several rounded pinnacles. There are four chhatris or kiosks at the corners. The combination of several dozens of large, medium and miniature domes of gilded copper create a unique and dazzling effect, enhanced by the reflection in the water below.
The typical art and architectural features of the Golden Temple can be summed up as (1) multiplicity of chhatris which ornament the parapets, angles at every prominence or projection; (2) the invariable use of fluted domes covered with gilded copper; (3) balconised windows thrown out on carved brackets or bay-windows with shallow elliptical cornices; and (4) enrichment of walls, arches and ceilings by various forms of mural art.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh repaired the principal building in 1802 A.D. This act is commemorated by an inscription over the entrance to the central shrine, which reads: The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharaja Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor and Sikh, and, in His benevolence, bestowed on him the privilege of serving the temple.
To roof the temple with sheets of gilded copper, he donated Rs. 500,000 and the work was executed by Mistri Yar Mohammad Khan, under the supervision of Bhai Sand Singh. The first plate on the temple was fixed in 1803 A.D. The personages who donated for the embellishment of the ceiling on the ground floor included Tara Singh Gheba, Pratap Singh, Jodh Singh and Ganda Singh Peshawari, the last of whom made his contribution in 1823 A.D. The archway under the Darshani Deorhi was embellished with sheets of gilded copper by Sangat Singh, the Raja of Jind. Being the central shrine of the Sikhs, almost every sardar of any pretension contributed to its architectural and decorative additions from time to time. That is why it is not feasible, except for a few date-inscribed works, to make a chronological account of the decorations, murals or other work, in the Golden Temple.
The decorations which fall strictly in the category of mural painting are floral patterns interspersed with animal motifs. There are about 300 different patterns on the walls, which, from a distance, look like hung Persian carpets. The naqqashes, or painters, of these patterns had developed a terminology of their own to distinguish various designs. Among these the most prominent is known by the name of Dehin: a medium of expression of the imaginative study of the artist's own creation of idealised forms. Gharwanjh is the base of Dehin. This is also a decorative device involving knotted grapples between animals. In the Golden Temple are seen Ghawanj showing cobras, lions and elephants clutching one another, carrying flower vases in which fruits and fairies have been depicted. Patta is a decorative border design used around the Dehin and often depicted through creepers. There are also compositions based on aqdatic creatures.
The only mural depicting human figures is to be seen on the wall behind the northern narrow stairway leading to the top of the shrine, representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. According to the late Bhai Gian Singh Naqqash, it was painted by a Kangra artist specially commissioned by Ranjit Singh for this purpose. It is said to be a true copy of a miniature painting that originally was in the collection of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, which Ranjit Singh had intended to get copied in the form of a mural in the Golden Temple. Since the artist of the miniature in question had already died, the mural was executed by the painter's grandson. The name of the painter, however, is not known.
Paintings depicting mythological scenes referred to by H. H. Cole have entirely disappeared. Writing in 1878, W. Wakefield referred to erotic frescoes that covered the walls of the Golden Temple. However, in the absence of any other corroborative observation, his statement is of dubious value.
In addition to the work that falls strictly under the category of mural painting, a great volume of similar work in allied arts, loosely coming in the range of mural arts, has been done in the Golden Temple from time to time. This includes the work in embossed copper, gach, tukri, jaratkari and ivory inlay.
Most of the exterior upper portions of the walls of the Golden Temple are covered with beaten copper plates, heavily gilded. The raised decorations are mainly floral and abstract, but there are some panels representing the human figure. On the front side, for instance, are two embossed copper panels, the lower representing Guru Nanak flanked by Bala and Mardana, and the upper representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback.
Gach, a sort of stone or gypsum, was treated to form a paste and was applied on the wall like lime. Then it was fashioned out in designs with steel cutters and other implements. Gach work inlaid with coloured glass was known as tukri work and is to be seen in the second storey of the Shish Mahal. Jaratkari work involved the inlaying of coloured cut-stones in marble and is to be found on the lower portion of the exterior walls of the temple. In fact, the work is pietre dure and the inlay consists of semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and onyx. The designs are Mughal in spirit, but the introduction of human figures, never shown in true Mughal decorations, reveals their Sikh origin.
The ivory inlay work is to be seen only on the doors of the Darshani Deorhi. The gate is made of shisham wood, the front overlaid with silver, the back inlaid with ivory. The silver-plated front is ornamented only with panels. At the back are square and rectangular panels with geometrical and floral designs, in which are introduced birds, lions, tigers and deer. Some of the ivory inlay is coloured green and red, the effect being, in the words of H. H. Cole, «extremely harmonious.»
Most of the painters and craftsmen, who worked in various branches of mural arts and its appurtenances in the Golden Temple, remained unknown. Therefore, barring a very few works, it is almost impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to attribute them to particular painters and craftsmen. The late Bhai Hari Singh, himself an artist, prepared a list consisting of twenty names of painters and craftsmen who worked in the Golden Temple. This list serially included the names of Baba Kishan Singh, Baba Bishan Singh, Kapur Singh, Bhai Kehar Singh, Mahant Ishar Singh, Bhai Sardul Singh, Bhai Jawahar Singh, Bhai Metab Singh, Mistri Jaimal Singh, Bhai Harnam Singh, Bhai Ishar Singh, Bhai Gian Singh, Lal Singh Tarn Taran, Bhai Mangal Singh, Mistri Narain Singh, Mistri Jit Singh, Bhai Atma Singh, Baba Darja Mal and Bhai Vir Singh. A good deal of the old work, particularly mural in character, has disappeared from the precincts of the Golden Temple. Initially, the disappearance of murals started at the close of the nineteenth century, when devotees were permitted to present contributions in the form of inlaid marble slabs, which were fixed on the walls painted with frescoes. The old Bungas of the Golden Temple, which have been demolished, were repositories of splendid paintings. Inside the main Darshani Deorhi, where marble slabs have been fixed, there were fine paintings by Mahant Ishar Singh.
Efforts have alsq been made to renovate the decaying paintings in the, temple proper. But there appears not much reason to regret the loss, because, in the words of Michael Edwardes, the Golden Temple «is a symbol, glowing in richness and colour. That richness has, over the years, been constantly renewed, not always perhaps in the best of taste. But the Hari Mandir is not a museum. On the contrary, it is a shrine, part of the essential machinery of a living faith.»
AKAL TAKHT[/ALIGN]
There is no evidence to show exactly when the Akal Takht was built. From the amplitude of the near cantilever projection of the semi-circular platform onto a large square below, the throne of Akal seems to be a highly dramatised Durbar hall larger than that built by any Mughal Emperor in Delhi or Agra.
It is quite likely that, fighting from a temporal and spiritual kingdom placed in the heartland of Punjab in Amritsar, the Guru, who put on two swords, that of the faith and of the emergent Sikh kingdom, had it built to give audiences to his followers.
At any rate, the convention seems to have been established to address all important gatherings, religious, social and political, from the Akal Takht to the amphitheatre below. This became the practice certainly during the important Gurpurbs, or the birthdays of the Gurus, when a vast congregation would assemble to hear recitations from the scriptures. The elaboration of the structure on marble pillars, as a semi-circular platform with an open view to the courtyard, reminiscent of an air-house, must have grown from the use to which the Durbar hall was put.
The gilding of the ceiling with ornamentations like those in the interior of the Hari Mandir is perhaps later than in the holy of holies. The wall paintings apparently belong to a later period, as there are panels showing Europeans.
The total effect of the Akal Takht is of a unique and noble structure spread out somewhat like an outer court of the piazza Saint Marco in Venice.
